Rhizome Length Research Articles

The Adaptive Mechanism of Ginseng Rhizomes in Response to Habitat Changes

Panax ginseng, a perennial medicinal plant, utilizes its dried roots and rhizomes for medicinal purposes. Currently, in China, ginseng cultivation employs two methods: under-forest and farmland planting. These methods create distinct habitats, significantly influencing the ginseng’s rhizome morphology and, consequently, its economic value. In this study, two-year-old ginsengs were transplanted into farmland (TCG), a larch forest (TLCG) and a Quercus mongolica forest (TQCG) to analyze the differences in rhizome phenotypes caused by habitat changes. The results showed that there were significant differences in light intensity and the soil’s available phosphorus and potassium contents between farmland and forest environments. The differences in habitats led to different adaptability of the ginseng’s rhizome morphology. Compared with TCG, the rhizomes of TLCG and TQCG were significantly elongated by 48.36% and 67.34%, respectively. After the rhizomes’ elongation in TLCG and TQCG, there was an increase in indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) contents and a decrease in lignin contents. By analyzing the expression of key genes, we found that, compared with TCG, the expression of key enzymes of lignin biosynthesis genes such as PgCOMT and PgCCR4 were down-regulated. The difference in ginseng’s rhizome length is related to the signal transduction pathway of auxin and gibberellin. In addition, we preliminarily screened out transcription factors PgWRKY75, PgDIV, and PgbHLH93.1, which can actively respond to habitat changes and play important roles in the elongation of ginseng rhizomes. In summary, this study elucidates the phenotypic plasticity strategy of ginseng rhizomes in response to habitat changes and delineates the regulatory mechanism behind phenotypic adaptation, offering novel insights into ginseng’s morphogenesis.

Mother Rhizome Growth of Turmeric Varieties [Curcuma longa (L.)] Under Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus tereticornis) Based Agroforestry System in Chhattisgarh Plain, India

The experiment was carried out during the year 2022-23 and 2023-24 in Kharif seasons at the Herbal Garden of IGKV, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India. Two production systems were studied: F1 involved sole Turmeric, while F2 involved Eucalyptus intercropped with Turmeric in both the production system used FRBD (Factorial Randomized Block Design). Eight turmeric varieties were used i.e.: T1 - Suranjana, T2 - Selam, T3 – Chhattisgarh Haldi-1, T4 – Chhattisgarh Haldi-2, T5 – Roma, T6- Ranga, T7- NDH-98 and T8- Sonali. From the two year of investigation it’s found that mother rhizome length and width (cm) was found maximum in variety Chhattisgarh Haldi-2 and variety NDH-98 under sole turmeric as well as Eucalyptus intercropped with turmeric, while variety Sonali showed the minimum growth of mother rhizome in both the year of investigation and on mean data.

The enigmatic life history of the bamboo explained as a strategy to arrest succession

AbstractBamboos are perennial woody grasses that display an enigmatic mix of traits. Bamboo is highly shade intolerant like early‐successional trees. Without secondary xylem, bamboos cannot continue to grow once they reach a maximum height or replace xylem damaged by hydraulic stress and must instead replace each stem after a few years using vegetative propagation via rhizomes. These traits of bamboo would appear to make them inferior to trees in competition for both light and water in all but early‐successional wet locations. However, some species competitively exclude trees and form persistent monodominant stands across large areas in tropical and temperate forests, including areas that are not mesic. Moreover, bamboo paradoxically postpones seed production for decades to over a century, and then flowers semelparously and dies synchronously. The delayed reproduction appears to be inconsistent with an early‐successional strategy to colonize disturbed areas as soon as they form, while the simultaneous death over large areas appears to be inconsistent with a late‐successional strategy to gain and hold space. Bamboo exhibits great diversity in its growth form and life histories along the tropical‐temperate geographical cline, with tropical bamboo being taller with shorter rhizome lengths and flowering interval lengths than temperate bamboo. We hypothesize that all of the above characteristics of bamboo are essential elements of competitive strategies to arrest succession in a lineage that lacks secondary xylem. To develop this Arrested Succession Hypothesis, we construct mathematical models of competition for recently disturbed areas between a tree species and a species with bamboo's enigmatic characteristics. We modeled the growth of bamboo genetic individuals from seedlings after seed germination to clonal culms at mass flowering and then placed these individuals in competition with one another and with trees in simple models of competition for light. Results explain how bamboo's traits allow it to persist in forests late in succession despite its hydraulic disadvantages, and form monodominant stands in the temperate zone, but not in tropical forests. They explain why bamboo is semelparous with synchronized reproduction, and why maximum culm size and age, reproductive interval, and rhizome length differ between the tropics and the temperate zone.

Morphological Traits and Biomass Allocation of Leymus secalinus along Habitat Gradient in a Floodplain Wetland of the Heihe River, China

Plant organ biomass allocation and morphological characteristics are important functional traits. The responses of plant root, stem, and leaf traits to heterogeneous habitats in floodplain wetlands are highly important for understanding the ecological adaptation strategies of riparian plants. However, the patterns of these responses remain unclear. In a floodplain wetland in the middle reaches of the Heihe River, we studied the responses of the root, stem, and leaf morphological traits and biomass allocation of Leymus secalinus to varying habitat conditions. We measured these traits in three sample plots, delineated based on distance from the riverbank: plot I (near the riparian zone, 50–150 m from the riverbank), plot II (middle riparian zone, 200–300 m from the riverbank), and plot III (far riparian zone, 350–450 m from the riverbank). The results showed that in plot I, L. secalinus tended to have slender roots and stems and small leaves, with a biomass allocation strategy that maximized the root–shoot ratio (RSR). In plot II, L. secalinus had thick stems and moderate leaf and root patterns, and the RSR values were between those of plot I and plot III. In plot III, L. secalinus had thin and short stems and large leaves; furthermore, among the root morphological structures, plot III had the shortest Rhizome length (RL) and longest Rhizome diameter (RD), and the RSR was the lowest. Moreover, there was a significant correlation between organ biomass and leaf thickness, stem length, RD, and RL in the three habitats (p < 0.05). By balancing the biomass allocation among organs, wetland plants in floodplains balance changes in root, stem, and leaf morphological characteristics to improve their environmental adaptation.

Changes in growth characteristics and ginsenoside contents of wild-simulated ginseng with different harvest times in South Korea

Wild-simulated ginseng (WSG, Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) is grown in mountainous forests, without the chemical treatment or installation of artificial facilities. This study aimed to investigate monthly changes in growth characteristics and ginsenoside contents in WSG to suggest the optimal harvest time. Four-year-old WSG were collected in the same area every month, and their growth characteristics and ginsenoside contents were measured. The growth characteristics of aerial and root parts were measured from May to July and from March to December, respectively. For the aerial part, most growth characteristics of WSG decreased over time, except for stem length. For the root part, rhizome length increased over time except for September, while the root diameter and weight of root part were mostly consistent. The root length increased by September, while the number of rootlets was the highest at May. At July, the total ginsenoside content of WSG was significantly the highest, while the total ginsenoside content at October was the lowest. This result was believed to be due to the F2, Rd, and Rg1 contents of the aerial part, rather than the root part. Also, based on these growths and the ginsenoside contents of WSG, the optimal harvest time for WSG is considered to be late spring–summer (May–July) when the aerial part can be identified.

In Vitro Micropropagation of the Vulnerable Chilean Endemic Alstroemeria pelegrina L.

The Chilean rhizomatous geophyte Alstroemeria pelegrina (A. pelegrina), a species endemic to the Coquimbo (31°45′ S) and Valparaíso (33°12′ S) regions, is currently classified as vulnerable and experiencing population decline due to loss of habitat. This heightened threat underscores the need to develop effective mass propagation techniques to support its conservation efforts. Consequently, the present study aimed to establish an optimized in vitro propagation protocol tailored specifically for A. pelegrina to facilitate its large-scale propagation and promote the preservation of this vulnerable geophyte. In our experiment, explants obtained from in vitro germination were used. These explants were then cultured on a Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium solidified with agar (6 g L−1) and supplemented with 2.22 μM 6-Benzylaminopurine (BAP) and 30 g L−1 sucrose. The results indicated an average of 4.6 new shoots produced per initial explant. The implementation of light-emitting diode (LED) illumination with a red:blue ratio of 3:1 and 2.22 μM BAP resulted in an average shoot length of 6.2 cm. For rhizome induction, the addition of either 5.37 μM 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) or 5.37 μM indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) resulted in average rhizome lengths of 1.9 cm and 1.7 cm, respectively, with fresh weights of the vitroplants ranging from 2.9 g to 3.1 g, and rooting percentages between 100% and 96%, respectively. Notably, the survival rate of rooted plants obtained through in vitro propagation was 90% after a 4-week acclimatization period in a cold greenhouse, indicating the efficacy of the developed protocol for mass propagation and conservation efforts of this vulnerable geophyte species.

Response of Functional Traits of Aquatic Plants to Water Depth Changes under Short-Term Eutrophic Clear-Water Conditions: A Mesocosm Study.

Aquatic plants play a key role in the structuring and functioning of shallow lake ecosystems. However, eutrophication often triggers shifts in plant communities and species diversity, especially in the early stages when the water is still clear. Additionally, water depth is an important factor regulating aquatic plant communities. We conducted a 50-day mesocosm study to investigate how water depth (50 cm and 100 cm) affected the functional traits (vertical expansion versus horizontal colonisation) of 20 aquatic plants under eutrophic clear-water conditions. Among the selected species, the submerged plants Hydrocotyle vulgaris and Limnophila indica exhibited higher plant height or biomass in deeper water, while the emergent plants Myriophyllum aquaticum showed the opposite trend. Additionally, Ludwigia peploides subsp. stipulacea exhibited better vertical growth than the remaining species, and the submerged species Vallisneria denseserrulata had better horizontal colonisation. There was a positive correlation between plant height and rhizome length, indicating the absence of a trade-off between vertical growth and horizontal expansion. Our findings suggest an overall resilience of aquatic plants to varying water depths within our study range and highlight the importance of analysing functional traits when selecting appropriate species in freshwater ecosystem restoration, particularly in the face of climate change-induced water depth fluctuations.

Effect of Different Shading Color on Growth and Yield Performance of (Black Ginger) Kaempferia parviflora Wall. ex Baker

A study was conducted to investigate the impact of different shading colors on the growth and yield performance of (black ginger) Kaempferia parviflora Wall. ex Baker. The experiment was conducted in a glasshouse at MARDI Jerangau, Terengganu, from September 2022 to May 2023. The experiment followed a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The shade treatments consisted of non-shade (T1), green shade (T2), yellow shade (T3), and red shade (T4). The results revealed that the application of colored shading significantly enhanced both the growth and yield of K. parviflora. Notably, the growth performance at the 5-month after planting (MAP) stage was crucial for rhizome yield, with any decrease in plant height potentially leading to diminished rhizome weight measurements. Among the shading colors, green shade emerged as the most effective, boosting total rhizome weight compared to non-shaded conditions. Correlation analysis between yield components demonstrated a strong positive relationship between rhizome length and rhizome weight (0.894), followed by rhizome weight and root weight (0.835). In conclusion, the study highlights the beneficial effects of colored shading on the yield components of K. parviflora, emphasizing the potential for optimized cultivation practices to enhance crop productivity.

Evaluation of organic options for Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense) control during winter fallow

AbstractJohnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.] is one of the most problematic perennial grass weed species in row-crop production across the southern United States. Control of this species is especially challenging in organic systems due to a lack of effective options. A field experiment was conducted at the Texas A&M research farm near College Station, TX, from fall 2019 to spring 2021 to evaluate various nonchemical options for managing S. halepense in the fallow season, implemented over 2 yr in the same locations. The treatments included disking once, disking twice, disking + immediate flooding, disking + flush irrigation + flooding, disking twice + flooding after the first frost, periodic mowing, acetic acid treatment, and disking + tarping. Disking + immediate flooding, disking + flush irrigation + flooding, and disking + tarping were the most effective treatments. Compared with the nontreated control plots, these treatments reduced S. halepense aboveground density (<9 plants m−2 vs. 64 plants m−2), aboveground biomass (<80 g m−2 vs. 935 g m−2), rhizome biomass (<4 g m−2 vs. 55 g m−2), rhizome node number (<25 nodes m−2 vs. 316 nodes m−2), and rhizome length (<42 cm m−2 vs. 660 cm m−2). Disking twice + flooding after the first frost did not show a consistent impact. Periodic mowing also reduced S. halepense density (12 plants m−2 vs. 64 plants m−2) and other variables compared with the control plots at the end of the study in spring 2021. Disking alone once or twice each growing season or repeated application of acetic acid failed to control S. halepense. These results indicate that well-timed nonchemical management practices such as tarping and flooding implemented during the winter fallow can be very effective in reducing S. halepense densities.

Modeling the effect of temperature on rhizome sprouting in the invasive weed silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium)

AbstractSilverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.), a noxious, highly invasive perennial weed, poses a significant threat to irrigated summer crops, vegetables, and orchards. This weed has the ability to reproduce both sexually through seed production and asexually via an extensive underground rhizome network, the latter playing a major role in the weed’s invasion, establishment, and persistence. Our aims were thus to assess the impact of temperature on rhizome sprouting for fragments of different lengths and to model the sprouting dynamics. The influence of temperature on the sprouting of rhizome fragments (2.5-, 5-, 7.5-, or 10-cm long) was investigated in growth chambers at eight temperatures ranging from 10 to 45 C. The highest sprouting proportions for 10-cm rhizome fragments were recorded at 30 and 35 C in complete darkness. The highest sprouting time for all fragment lengths was observed at 15 C in complete darkness. Modeling sprouting rates as a function of temperature gave the cardinal temperatures for the four different rhizome fragment lengths, with Tb (base temperature) values of 12.80, 9.34, 9.14, and 9.50 C, To (optimal temperature) values of 38.9 $$0$$ , 36.60, 35.16, and 34.86 C, and Tc (ceiling temperature) values of 39.80, 40.08, 40.50, and 40.80 C for rhizome lengths of 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 cm, respectively. Based on these findings, the potential for S. elaeagnifolium to spread to new areas and possible new management strategies are discussed; these offer a novel approach for informed decision making regarding the control of this weed.

Propagation, physiology, and biomass of Giant Cane (Arundinaria gigantea) for conservation and restoration

Arundinaria gigantea is a native species to 22 states in the U.S. The species and its ecosystem are considered critically endangered, and the species has been reduced to 2% of its original extent. Our research goals were to; 1) examine methods for greenhouse propagation for restoration; 2) examine the physiology of cane at one of the only canebrakes on public land in SW MO, greenhouse propagated cane, and field planted cane; and 3) develop an allometric equation to estimate biomass of the canebrake. We used the number of shoots produced as a metric for propagation success. The number of new shoots depended on rhizome length, watering regime, and whether propagation was attempted with the rhizome alone or with an existing culm. We recorded 100% propagation success from every rhizome with culm cut at 2nd internode with regular watering on 8 x 15.6-inch pots having soil-mix/perlite media. Leaf chlorophyll values ranged from 329 umol/m2 in sun leaves to 354 umol/m2 in shade leaves in October 2022. During a mild drought summer 2022, leaves-maintained water potential of -1.8 MPa with photosynthetic rates as high as 12 umol CO2/m2/s. Biomass models based on pole diameter and height were established. We estimated 12,359.508 kg of biomass which is equivalent to 5.8 metric tons of carbon stored by a 0.17 ha canebrake at Mincy Conservation Area in SW MO. Our research provides baseline data for understanding the role of cane and canebrakes in ecosystem functioning in existing canebrakes, and habitats where cane could be restored.

Genetic Divergence among On-farm Collections for Yield and Yield-related Traits in Ginger (Zingiber officinale R.)

The present investigation was carried out at the farmer’s field Neshwi village, Haveri District of Karnataka, India during kharif season (May, 2021 to January, 2022). The improvement of crop relies heavily on genetic diversity. The objective of the study was to assess the genetic divergence of 76 diverse genotypes of ginger collected from different parts of the Karnataka, India which including four checks. The genetic divergence of ginger genotypes was assessed using Mahalanobis D2 statistics. Genetic divergence studies revealed considerable genetic diversity among 76 genotypes of ginger for a set of ten quantitative traits pertaining to the growth and yield characters viz., height of the shoot (cm), leaf area (cm2), number of primary rhizomes, length of the primary rhizome (cm), girth of the primary rhizome (cm), number of secondary rhizomes, length of the secondary rhizome (cm), girth of the secondary rhizome (cm), crop duration (number of days) and rhizome yield plant-1 (g). Analysed 76 ginger genotypes were clustered based on similarities between their D2 values using Tocher’s method, resulting in 14 distinct groups. Considerable diversity within and between 14 clusters was observed among the genotypes. The characteristics such as average rhizome yield plant-1, girth of the primary rhizome and length of the primary rhizome were the main factors in differentiating the genotypes of ginger studied. Utilizing genotypes from clusters with high inter-cluster distances, such as clusters VI and XIII, VI and XIV and X and XIV can form potential pre-breeding material for the improvement of ginger crop.

The Effect of Different Mulches and Bed Sizes on Growth, Yield and Quality of Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) Under the Mid-Hill Zone of Himachal Pradesh

The present investigation was carried out in the Department of Vegetable Science, Dr. YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India during kharif, May, 2020–January, 2021 to examine the effect of different mulches and bed sizes on the growth, yield and quality of turmeric. The trial was laid out in randomized complete block design (factorial) with 9 treatment combinations, including 3 mulches (silver-black mulching film, pine needles and dry grass) with 3-bed sizes (9×1 m2, 6×1 m2 and 3×1 m2), which were triplicated. Turmeric yield proved to be significantly affected by mulching materials with silver-black mulching film producing the highest yield (32.01 t ha-1) whereas pine needles produced the lowest yield (23.85 t ha-1). Rhizome length and breadth, the number of primary and secondary rhizomes, dry recovery, essential oil, oleoresin and curcumin content were some of the yield and quality characteristics that have been improved by the use of silver-black mulching film. Bed size also provided a significant effect on the yield of turmeric with the highest (29.03 t ha-1) in bed size 9×1 m2 whereas lowest in 3×1 m2 (25.75 t ha-1). A combination of silver-black mulching film and 9×1 m2 bed size provided the significantly highest turmeric yield (33.56 t ha-1). This study recommends that farmers in Himachal Pradesh’s mid-hill zone to produce turmeric using silver-black mulching film on beds measuring 9×1 m2 for better growth, yield and improved quality of turmeric.

Photocatalytic Degradation and Toxicity Analysis of Sulfamethoxazole using TiO2/BC.

Sulfonamide antibiotics in the environment not only disrupt the ecological balance but can also enter the human or animal body in various forms and cause harm. Therefore, exploring efficient methods to degrade sulfonamide antibiotics is crucial. In this study, we prepared biochar (BC) using corn straw, and TiO2/BC was obtained by doping different proportions of TiO2 into biochar with varying carbonization temperatures using the sol-gel method. Next, we investigated the degradation of sulfamethoxazole (SMX) in solution using the generated TiO2/BC under ultraviolet irradiation and studied the effects of various experimental parameters, such as the type of composite material, composite material addition, solution pH, and initial antibiotic concentration on SMX degradation. Under an initial SMX concentration of 30 mg/L, the composite with the best photocatalytic degradation performance was TiO2/BC-5-300 (i.e., 5 mL of TiO2 doping; 300 °C calcination temperature), with an addition amount of 0.02 g and a solution pH of 3. The degradation efficiency increased from 22.3% to 89%, and the most significant degradation effect occurred during the initial stage of photocatalytic degradation. In the TiO2/BC-5-300 treated SMX solution, the average rhizome length of bean sprouts was significantly higher than that of the untreated SMX solution and slightly lower than that of the deionized aqueous solution (3.05 cm < 3.85 cm < 4.05 cm). This confirmed that the photocatalytic degradation of SMX by the composite was effective and could efficiently reduce its impact on the growth of bean sprouts. This study provides essential data and theoretical support for using TiO2/BC in the treatment of antibiotic-contaminated wastewater.

Evaluation of Different Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea L.) Accessions for High Rhizome Yield with Good Quality and Starch Content

Aim: Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea L) is an underutilized tuber crop belonging to the family marantaceae. This study mainly aims to evaluate different arrowroot accessions for quality starch and best yield.&#x0D; Study of Design: The field experiment was conducted in randomized block design with total ten accessions and three replications.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Research: The present investigation was undertaken at the College Orchard, Department of Vegetable Science, Horticultural College &amp; Research Institute, TNAU, Coimbatore during the year 2022-2023.&#x0D; Methodology: In this study, ten arrowroot accessions viz.,TAr18-01, TAr18-02,TAr18-04,TAr18-05,TAr18-10, TAr18-11, TAr18-12, TAr18-13, TAr18-14 and Local were evaluated for their growth, yield and quality parameters.&#x0D; Results: The statistical results revealed that all the accessions significantly differ from each other. Results obtained as maximum height in the accession TAr18-14(132.01cm), maximum number of leaves in TAr18-10 (109.33), number of tillers in TAr18-14 (8.45) and biggest rhizome weight in TAr18-14(198.81g) respectively. The yield traits like rhizome length (25.49 cm), diameter (9.46cm) and number of rhizome per plant (30.00), rhizome yield per plant (1.49kg) were maximum in TAr18-10. The quality parameters viz., dry matter (%) was highest for TAr18-10(56.76%),TSS in TAr18-12 (27.83%), ash contents in TAr18-10 (3.88%). These parameters mainly decide the quality and nutritive value of Arrowroot. There is a significant variation in the quality parameters like starch, TSS, dry matter, protein, crude fiber. Among various accessions TAr18-04 recorded the highest starch (54.62%) and TAr18-14recorded highest protein content (6.194%). Amylose content (21.88%) was maximum in TAr18-01.&#x0D; Conclusion: It can be concluded from the following study that TAr18-10 recorded highest rhizome yield, dry matter content with quality starch and can be selected for further evaluation and exploitation in industrial applications.

Investigating the Influence of Rhizome Size and Treatment on Turmeric Crop Productivity (Curcuma longa L.)

The experiment was conducted during the Kharif season of 2021-22 at the Department of Seed Technology, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University in Sardarkrushingar. It followed a Randomized Complete Block Design (Factorial concept) with three replications, utilizing the GNT 2 variety. The study aimed to investigate the effects of seven treatments and four rhizome sizes on various characteristics of turmeric. The results indicated that both the rhizome size R4 (mother rhizome) and treatment T4 (Chiller treatment at 4°C for 2 hours) significantly influenced all the measured traits. The mother rhizome (R4) exhibited the highest values for germination percentage (80.48%), plant height (64.52 cm), leaf length (36.96 cm), leaf width (13.50 cm), tillers per plant (3.21), mother rhizomes per plant (2.32), primary fingers per plant (7.33), secondary fingers per plant (7.94), rhizome length (14.89 cm), rhizome width (15.54 cm), and rhizome weight (185.25 g). Furthermore, among the different treatments, the chiller treatment (T4) at 4°C for 2 hours yielded significantly higher results for germination percentage (85.98%), plant height (65.35 cm), leaf length (34.51 cm), mother rhizomes per plant (2.38), primary fingers per plant (6.70), secondary fingers per plant (7.95), rhizome length (14.13 cm), rhizome width (15.58 cm), and rhizome weight (187.23 g). The sodium hypochloride treatment (T5) at 4% for 2 hours resulted in the maximum leaf width (12.96 cm) and the number of tillers per plant (3.24). In conclusion, these findings emphasize the potential benefits of pre-sowing rhizome treatment for enhancing turmeric crop cultivation, leading to improved crop performance.

Comparison of two contrasting Leymus chinensis accessions reveals the roles of the cell wall and auxin in rhizome development

Leymus chinensis, a perennial native forage grass, is widely distributed in the steppes of Inner Mongolia as the dominant species. The main reproductive strategy of this grass is clonal propagation, which occurs via the proliferation of subterranean horizontal stems known as rhizomes. To elucidate the mechanism underlying rhizome development in this grass, we collected 60 accessions of L. chinensis and evaluated their rhizome development. One accession, which we named SR-74 (Strong Rhizomes), had significantly better rhizome development capacity than the accession WR-16 (Weak Rhizomes) in terms of rhizome number, total and primary rhizome length, and number of rhizome seedlings. Rhizome elongation was positively correlated with the number of internodes in the rhizome, which affected plant biomass. Compared to WR-16, SR-74 had higher rhizome tip hardness, higher abundance of transcripts participating in the biosynthesis of cell wall components, and higher levels of the metabolites L-phenylalanine, trans-cinnamic acid, 3-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and coniferin. These metabolites in the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathway are precursors of lignin. In addition, SR-74 rhizomes contained higher amounts of auxin and auxin metabolites, including L-Trp, IPA, IBA, IAA and IAA-Asp, as well as upregulated expression of the auxin biosynthesis and signaling genes YUCCA6, YUCCA8, YUCCA10, YUCCA11, PIN1, PIN2, UGT1, UGT2, UGT4, UGT10, GH3, IAA7, IAA23, and IAA30. We propose a network between auxin signaling and the cell wall underlying rhizome development in L. chinensis.

Relationships between Rhizosphere Environments and Growth of 10-Year-Old Wild-Simulated Ginseng

Wild-simulated ginseng (WSG, Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) must be cultivated in mountainous forests without installation of artificial facilities or treatment of chemicals. Because cultivation of these medicinal plants requires a long-term period, soil properties and rhizobacteria are known as major factors affecting their growth. This study was aimed to investigate correlations of soil bacterial community with soil chemical properties and growth of 10-year-old WSG. Most of the growth characteristics of WSG were higher in southern region than in northern regions, while leaflet length and leaflet width of WSG were higher in northern regions. In all WSG cultivation sites, the most dominant phyla were Proteobacteria and Acidobacteria in the bacterial community. In Principal component analysis (PCA), soil bacterial community was affected by exchangeable cations (calcium, magnesium), soil pH, total nitrogen, cation exchange capacity, and organic matter. Soil pH was the most effective factor in this study because all studied sites were acidic soils. In spearman’s coefficient analysis, 9 of 13 growth characteristics of WSG showed significantly positive correlation with the relative abundance of Actinobacteria, while rhizome length and number of rootlets showed significant negative correlations with population of Acidobacteria. Therefore, growth characteristics of WSG in different cultivation sites can be affected by various soil environmental factors. These results can help foresters find suitable cultivation sites for WSG.

Polyploidization-enhanced effective clonal reproduction endows the successful invasion of Solidago canadensis.

Clonality and ploidy levels are positively associated with plant invasiveness. However, there is still no consensus on whether polyploidization can promote the invasion of alien plants by enhancing clonality. Our recent long-term community succession study found that the more vigorous clone of introduced polyploid Solidago canadensis succeeded into mono-dominant community, which seems to be a positive correlationship between polyploidization and clonal reproduction. However, the formation process of clonal ramet and how polyploidization improves the clonal reproduction of S. canadensis remains unknown. Here, we compared clonal growth ability among diploids and polyploids of S. canadensis from native and introduced ranges in a common garden. Results showed that the rhizomes of S. canadensis originated from axillary buds of dense nodes at the basal stem of seedling and then produced into clonal ramets from the rhizomes. Diploids had denser nodes and more buds, developed more rhizomes per unit mass and produced more clonal propagules at the early growth stage compared with polyploids. However, the number of juvenile and secondary rhizomes, as well as the diameter and length of rhizomes in polyploid populations was significantly higher or greater than those of diploids, and those clonal traits in introduced polyploids were significantly higher than in native polyploids. Moreover, a phalanx growth form was observed in native and introduced diploid populations, which allocated about 3% and 5% of the total biomass to rhizomes, respectively, resulting in short and weak rhizomes. However, native and introduced polyploids allocated about 35% and 40%, respectively, of the total biomass to rhizomes, resulting in long and strong rhizomes, which were guerrilla growth forms. This study firstly shows that polyploidization enhanced the effective clonal reproduction of S. canadensis through pre-adaptation and rapid post-adaptation evolution, and consequently contributed to its successful invasion.

Growth dynamics and Resource allocation of Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Greene: an alteration across different habitats and altitudes

Bistorta amplexicaulis is an essential medicinal plant found in the Kashmir Himalaya. Ethnobotanical studies have revealed that this particular species is used to treat fractures, muscle injuries, heart problems, abnormal leucorrhoea, menorrhagia and inflammation of the mouth and tongue. The current study aimed to determine the variation in growth traits and fluctuations in the allocation patterns with respect to different habitats across the altitudinal gradient. In order to adapt to unpredictable and stressful conditions at higher altitudes, phenotypic plasticity plays a crucial role. Our findings revealed considerable variability in the phenotypic traits, indicating that altitude has a defined effect on this specific species’s morphology and reproductive traits. Low altitude plant populations of Kashmir University Botanical Garden (KUBG), Dara and Tangmarg were more robust and taller (98.4±2.36, 83.58±2.69 and 74.08±1.59 cm, respectively) than the populations of Pissu top and Bangus (23.96±3.38 and 30.43±1.12 cm respectively) at higher altitudes. The habitats of KUBG, Dara, and Tangmarg proved to be substantially better for the growth of B. amplexicaulis, as per the Principal component analysis (PCA). The regression analysis demonstrated a negative relation between altitude and plant height. Traits such as leaf length/ breadth, Rhizome length/ breadth and inflorescence length showed a strong correlation with plant height. Our results provide an inclusive description of the phenotypic variability of this significant medicinal plant in response to the habitat variability across different altitudes.