Rhinoceros Conservation Research Articles

GUT MICROBIOME DIVERSITY OF THREE RHINOCEROS SPECIES IN EUROPEAN ZOOS.

The wild rhinoceros populations have declined drastically in the past decades because the rhinoceros are heavily hunted for their horns. Zoological institutions aim to conserve rhinoceros populations in captivity, but one of the challenges of ex situ conservation is to provide food sources that resemble those available in the wild. Considering that the mammalian gut microbiota is a pivotal player in their host's health, the gut microbiota of rhinoceros may also play a role in the bioavailability of nutrients. Therefore, this study aims to characterize the fecal microbiome composition of grazing white rhinoceros (WR; Ceratotherium simum) and greater one-horned rhinoceros (GOHR; Rhinoceros unicornis) as well as the browsing black rhinoceros (BR; Diceros bicornis) kept in European zoos. Over the course of 1 yr, 166 fecal samples in total were collected from 9 BR (n = 39), 10 GOHR (n = 56), and 14 WR (n = 71) from 23 zoological institutions. The bacterial composition in the samples was determined using 16S rRNA gene Illumina sequencing. The fecal microbiomes of rhinoceros clustered by species, with BR clustering more distantly from GOHR and WR. Furthermore, the data report clustering of rhinoceros microbiota according to individual rhinoceros and institutional origin, showing that zoological institutions play a significant role in shaping the gut microbiome of rhinoceros species. In addition, BR exhibit a relatively higher microbial diversity than GOHR and WR. BR seem more susceptible to microbial gut changes and appear to have a more diverse microbiome composition among individuals than GOHR and WR. These data expand on the role of gut microbes and can provide baseline data for continued efforts in rhinoceros conservation and health status.

Mapping the follicle-specific regulation of extracellular vesicle-mediated microRNA transport in the southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum)†.

Efforts to implement effective assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) for the conservation of the northern white rhinoceros (NWR; Ceratotherium simum cottoni) to prevent its forthcoming extinction, could be supported by research conducted on the closely related southern white rhinoceros (SWR; Ceratotherium simum simum). Within the follicle, extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a fundamental role in the bidirectional communication facilitating the crucial transport of regulatory molecules such as microRNAs (miRNAs) that control follicular growth and oocyte development. This study aimed to elucidate the dynamics of EV-miRNAs in stage-dependent follicular fluid (FF) during SWR ovarian antral follicle development. Three distinct follicular stages were identified based on diameter: Growing (G; 11-17mm), Dominant (D; 18-29mm), and Pre-ovulatory (P; 30-34mm). Isolated EVs from the aspirated FF of segmented follicle stages were used to identify EV-miRNAs previously known via subsequent annotation to all equine (Equus caballus; eca), bovine (Bos taurus; bta), and human (Homo sapiens; hsa) miRNAs. A total of 417 miRNAs were detected, with 231 being mutually expressed across all three stages, including eca-miR-148a and bta-miR-451 as the top highly expressed miRNAs. Distinct expression dynamics in miRNA abundance were observed across the three follicular stages, including 31 differentially expressed miRNAs that target various pathways related to follicular growth and development, with 13 miRNAs commonly appearing amidst two different comparisons. In conclusion, this pioneering study provides a comprehensive understanding of the stage-specific expression dynamics of FF EV-miRNAs in the SWR. These findings provide insights that may lead to novel approaches in enhancing ARTs to catalyze rhinoceros conservation efforts.

Finance and biodiversity conservation: insights from rhinoceros conservation and the first wildlife conservation bond

AbstractThe Rhino Bond is the first financial instrument dedicated to protecting a species. The Bond allows investors to invest in the conservation of the black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis, with the amount of money returned by the investment depending on whether rhinoceros numbers increase (and by how much). In this paper we focus on how the Bond was brought into being. We draw on an analysis of organizational reports along with data collected from interviews with key informants to investigate the roles of the various stakeholders in the Bond, how species and sites were selected, the motivations and experiences of the stakeholders and the involvement of stakeholders in decision-making. We found that although conservation actors are attracted by the potential for new funding, they have experienced challenges navigating complex financial instruments. The needs of financial actors often dictated decision-making, with implications for the species and sites chosen for the Bond. As profits are tied to an increase in population size of a specific species (which needs to be monitored), the instrument has favoured large and easily counted species and populations. Only some sites were able to meet the stringent conditions of financial instruments, including metrics on financial sustainability. We argue that the dominance of financial principles and motives means that not all species or sites will be viable candidates for investment and that conservation finance should not be seen as a panacea.

A review of clostridial diseases in rhinoceroses

AbstractAlthough rhinoceros conservation efforts are focused on anti‐poaching and combating wildlife trade, infectious diseases are an increasing threat to both free‐ranging and captive rhinoceros populations. Among these, clostridial infections with Clostridium perfringens, Paeniclostridium sordellii, and Clostridium novyi have caused acute disease in black and white rhinoceroses, characterized by a high mortality rate within very brief time spans. The acute nature, as well as limited knowledge of epidemiology, diagnosis, and management, make clostridial diseases an important threat to rhinoceros conservation. This article reviews historical cases of clostridial disease in rhinoceros with the aim of formulating a clearer understanding of the disease's epidemiology and using this information to make recommendations for its management in free‐ranging rhinoceroses. Acute colic and sudden death in rhinoceroses, together with necropsy findings of segmental hemorrhagic enteritis, should lead towards a tentative diagnosis of enteric clostridial disease, although detection and identification of specific toxins are required for a definitive diagnosis. Our findings indicate the need for further research into clostridial disease dynamics in wildlife species and provide the basis for this research in rhinoceroses.

From seeing to saving: How rhinoceros-based tourism in north-west Namibia strengthens local stewardship to help combat illegal hunting

The opportunity to encounter wildlife, especially endangered species, has long been a major tourism draw for countries around the world with demand continuing to grow. Yet direct evidence testing the underlaying assumptions of tourism as a wildlife conservation strategy has been more limited particularly where tourism benefits are assumed to “trickle down” to rural communities that foster local stewardship. A long-term case study from north-west Namibia's communal lands presents and evaluates a theory of change for a community-level black rhinoceros conservation tourism model that explicitly incorporates local values and institutions in design expected to deliver results that enhance local-level stewardship and improving conservation outcomes for the population. Between 2012 and 2018, the numbers of tourists participating in and revenue generated from local ranger-based rhinoceros viewing encounters directly to local community institutions increased dramatically by over 200% with over USD $1,000,000 generated during the 6 year period. Subsequent community re-investments in rhinoceros protection was evidenced by a 340% increase in the employment of local “Rhino Rangers” during the same period. Further, a strong positive relationship between community institutions that directly provide support to and benefit financially from tourism with the level of their reinvestment in rhinoceros conservation suggest that communities that benefited more from rhinoceros-based tourism demonstrated higher levels of stewardship. A strong negative relationship observed between rates of illegal hunting of the rhinoceros population and the level of local rhinoceros protection efforts suggest that the increase in local stewardship likely contributed to the reduction in illegal hunting. The Namibia Conservancy-led rhino conservation tourism case offers evidence and lessons that illustrate how carefully curated wildlife tourism that is designed specifically with community engagement and empowerment in mind may serve as a strong basis for enhanced local stewardship that helps improve wildlife and local human communities.

Importance of private and communal lands to sustainable conservation of Africa's rhinoceroses

A new path for rhinoceros (rhino) conservation is needed. Recent data signal the alarming impact of poaching on populations in Africa's rhino stronghold, the state‐run Kruger National Park (South Africa), which today supports one quarter the rhinos than a decade ago. We aggregated African rhino population data, highlighting the growing role of private and community rhino custodians, who likely now conserve >50% of Africa's rhinos. Their contribution has been enabled by a supportive policy and economic environment, but this arrangement is becoming more difficult to sustain as costs associated with protecting rhinos skyrocket and revenue‐generating options become insufficient. Some privately held rhino populations are small or intensively managed, raising questions about their conservation value. As the role of private and community custodianship becomes increasingly central to the protection of Africa's remaining rhinos, its resilience must be strengthened through implementation of adaptive policies that incentivize rhino conservation. We outline policy pathways to provide an enabling environment for rhino conservation beyond state parks.

Reinventing Nature in Kaziranga National Park: A History of Rhinoceros Conservation in Assam, 1948–1974

Reinventing Nature in Kaziranga National Park: A History of Rhinoceros Conservation in Assam, 1948–1974

Endangering the Endangered: The Poaching and Conservation Conundrum Facing the Greater Indian One-Horned Rhinoceros in Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India

The Kaziranga National Park (KNP), a World Heritage Site in the state of Assam, India, represents an area of unique importance to global rhinoceros conservation. It is home to the world’s largest population of the famous black Asiatic one-horned rhinoceros, which remains an endangered species, and one that has been closely threatened with extinction. This article explores the conservation strategies for the great endangered Indian one-horned rhinoceros in Kaziranga by situating it in a regional spectrum of conservation and regimes of ecological governance. It considers the crucial issue of rhinoceros poaching and the current anti-poaching mechanisms in KNP in the light of global wildlife conservation efforts and domestic anti-poaching mechanisms in India. It further identifies the gaps between policy formulation and implementation of conservation strategies regarding the rhinoceros of KNP, a species that holds a unique geopolitical importance, both in the global context of the conservation of endangered species generally, and more locally as the national symbol of the state of Assam, India.

Horns, Scales, Beaks: The Versatility of Keratin

The structures of alpha- and beta-keratins and their roles in nature are introduced, along with how demand for keratin-based products impacts on pangolin and rhinoceros conservation.

Identifying and prioritising climate change adaptation actions for greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) conservation in Nepal.

Climate change has started impacting species, ecosystems, genetic diversity within species, and ecological interactions and is thus a serious threat to conserving biodiversity globally. In the absence of adequate adaptation measures, biodiversity may continue to decline, and many species will possibly become extinct. Given that global temperature continues to increase, climate change adaptation has emerged as an overarching framework for conservation planning. We identified both ongoing and probable climate change adaptation actions for greater one-horned rhinoceros conservation in Nepal through a combination of literature review, key informant surveys (n = 53), focus group discussions (n = 37) and expert consultation (n = 9), and prioritised the identified adaptation actions through stakeholder consultation (n = 17). The majority of key informants (>80%) reported that climate change has been impacting rhinoceros, and more than 65% of them believe that rhinoceros habitat suitability in Nepal has been shifting westwards. Despite these perceived risks, climate change impacts have not been incorporated well into formal conservation planning for rhinoceros. Out of 20 identified adaptation actions under nine adaptation strategies, identifying and protecting climate refugia, restoring the existing habitats through wetland and grassland management, creating artificial highlands in floodplains to provide rhinoceros with refuge during severe floods, and translocating them to other suitable habitats received higher priority. These adaptation actions may contribute to reducing the vulnerability of rhinoceros to the likely impacts of climate change. This study is the first of its kind in Nepal and is expected to provide a guideline to align ongoing conservation measures into climate change adaptation planning for rhinoceros. Further, we emphasise the need to integrating likely climate change impacts while planning for rhinoceros conservation and initiating experimental research and monitoring programs to better inform adaptation planning in the future.

Joining forces toward proactive elephant and rhinoceros conservation.

Proactive approaches that anticipate the long‐term effects of current and future conservation threats could increase the effectiveness and efficiency of biodiversity conservation. However, such approaches can be obstructed by a lack of knowledge of habitat requirements for wildlife. To aggregate and assess the suitability of current information available on habitat requirements needed for proactive conservation, we conducted a systematic review of the literature on elephant and rhinoceros habitat requirements and synthesized data by combining a vote counting assessment with bibliometric and term maps. We contextualized these numeric and terminological results with a narrative review. We mapped current methods, results, terminology, and collaborations of 693 studies. Quantitative evidence for factors that influence the suitability of an area for elephants and rhinoceros was biased toward African savanna elephants and ecological variables. Less than one third of holistic approaches considered equal amounts of ecological and anthropogenic variables in their assessments. There was a general lack of quantitative evidence for direct proxies of anthropogenic variables that were expected to play an important role based on qualitative evidence and policy documents. However, there was evidence for a segregation in conceptual frameworks among countries and species and between science versus policy literature. There was also evidence of unused potential for collaborations among southern hemisphere researchers. Our results indicated that the success of proactive conservation interventions can be increased if ecological and anthropogenic dimensions are integrated into holistic habitat assessments and holistic carrying capacities and quantitative evidence for anthropogenic variables is improved. To avoid wasting limited resources, it is necessary to form inclusive collaborations within and across networks of researchers studying different species across regional and continental borders and in the science–policy realm.

An analysis of threats, strategies, and opportunities for African rhinoceros conservation.

The complexity and magnitude of threats to black (Diceros bicornis) and white (Ceratotherium simum) rhinoceros conservation in Africa have triggered global concerns and actions. In this study, we analyzed (i) threats to rhinoceros conservation including external shocks, (ii) historical rhinoceros conservation strategies in Zimbabwe and Africa, more broadly, and (iii) opportunities for enhanced rhinoceros conservation in Zimbabwe and Africa. A literature search from 1975 to 2020 was carried out using a predefined search protocol, involving a number of filters based on a set of keywords to balance search sensitivity with specificity. A total of 193 articles, which were most relevant to key themes on rhinoceros conservation, were used in this study. The common threats to rhinoceros conservation identified in this paper include poaching, habitat fragmentation and loss, international trade in illegal rhino products, and external shocks such as global financial recessions and pandemics. Cascading effects emanating from these threats include small and isolated populations, which are prone to genetic, demographic, and environmental uncertainties. Rhinoceros conservation strategies being implemented include education and awareness campaigns, better equipped and more antipoaching efforts, use of innovative systems and technologies, dehorning, and enhancing safety nets, and livelihoods of local communities. Opportunities for rhinoceros conservation vary across the spatial scale, and these include (a) a well‐coordinated stakeholder and community involvement, (b) strategic meta‐population management, (c) enhancing law enforcement initiatives through incorporating real‐time surveillance technologies and intruder detection sensor networks for crime detection, (d) scaling up demand reduction awareness campaigns, and (e) developing more certified wildlife crime and forensic laboratories, and information repository for international corporation.

An Ethical Assessment Tool (ETHAS) to Evaluate the Application of Assisted Reproductive Technologies in Mammals' Conservation: The Case of the Northern White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni).

Simple SummaryApplying assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) to the conservation of endangered species may be the only way to save them from extinction. However, ART application can raise relevant ethical issues and could benefit from a comprehensive ethical assessment. Unfortunately, there is a lack of attention to the topic in the scientific literature and, to our knowledge, there is no tool for the ethical assessment of ARTs in the context of conservation that has been described. In the present paper, we show the effects of applying a dedicated ethical self-assessment tool, the Ethical Assessment Tool (ETHAS), to ovum pick-up and in vitro fertilization procedures performed within the BioRescue project. The BioRescue project is an international enterprise using ARTs to save the northern white rhinoceros from extinction. The situation of the northern white rhinoceros is particularly critical as there are only two individuals of this subspecies still alive and they are both infertile females. The application of the ETHAS to the procedures contributed to the overall acceptability of the project and improved communication among the project’s partners. In turn, the tool itself was also refined through an iterative consultation process between experts (both ethicists and scientists) and stakeholders.Assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) can make a difference in biodiversity conservation. Their application, however, can create risks and raise ethical issues that need addressing. Unfortunately, there is a lack of attention to the topic in the scientific literature and, to our knowledge, there is no tool for the ethical assessment of ARTs in the context of conservation that has been described. This paper reports the first applications of the Ethical Assessment Tool (ETHAS) to trans-rectal ovum pick-up (OPU) and in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedures used in a northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) conservation project. The ETHAS consists of two checklists, the Ethical Evaluation Sheet and the Ethical Risk Assessment, and is specifically customized for each ART procedure. It provides an integrated, multilevel and standardized self-assessment of the procedure under scrutiny, generating an ethical acceptability ranking (totally, partially, not acceptable) and a risk rank (low, medium, high), and, hence, allows for implementing measures to address or manage issues beforehand. The application of the ETHAS to the procedures performed on the northern white rhinoceros was effective in ensuring a high standard of procedures, contributing to the acceptability and improved communication among the project’s partners. In turn, the tool itself was also refined through an iterative consultation process between experts and stakeholders.

Local Community Participation in Rhino Conservation - Key to Conservation Success

A robust framework to guide community engagement in sustainable wildlife conservation and illegal wildlife trade is lacking. Virtually all conservation bodies and players believe that local communities are key to the success of rhino conservation but they are not equally walking their talk. Bottom-up community-based initiatives help to curb poaching especially level one poachers. The multifaceted problem of the African rhinoceros poaching on the continent is approaching calamitous proportions, with astounding, sobering statistics revealing the sheer extent of the illegal practice today. Poverty, greediness, superstition, rampant corruption, unchecked social injustice, ruthlessness, and ignorance are fuelling the interplay of rhino horn demand and supply. In order to save the remaining rhinoceros species there is need for economic transformation which will benefit both the communities and wildlife. Communities should get direct financial benefits from rhinoceros conservation, capacitate them and always engage them in rhinoceros conservation matters. Rhino protection should be incentivized, increasing the number of local people benefiting from conservation, and decreasing hostility towards wildlife will motivate local people to fully embrace conservation efforts. These conservation efforts should first target level one poachers who are vulnerable and exposed, by developing a comprehensive profitable and lucrative community participation packages in all rhino properties. Conservationists should walk their talk and genuinely work with local communities to build support for rhino conservation through education, awareness, self-sustaining business ventures and employment.

Development and evaluation of indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for the determination of immune response to multiple clostridial antigens in vaccinated captive bred southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum)

BackgroundAn overall increase in poaching of white rhinoceros results in captive breeding becoming a significant component of white rhinoceros conservation. However, this type of conservation comes with its own difficulties. When wildlife is captured, transported and/or confined to a boma environment, they are more predisposed to diseases caused by bacterial organisms such as spore forming Clostridium spp. A southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) population on a captive bred farm was suspected to be affected by Clostridium infections. These endangered animals were apparently exposed to Clostridium spp., in the conservation area previously used for cattle farming. The rhinoceros population on the breeding operation property was vaccinated with a multi-component clostridial vaccine registered for use in cattle. Multiple indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (iELISAs) were developed in order to evaluate the serum antibody titres of these vaccinated animals. In evaluating vaccine efficacy, the gold standard mouse neutralization test (MNT) was not available and therefore iELISAs were developed for the detection of serum antibodies to C. perfringens type A (alpha toxin), C. chauvoei (whole cell), C. novyi (alpha toxin), C. septicum (alpha toxin) and C. sordellii (lethal toxin) in the white rhinoceros population using international reference sera of equine origin. Antibody titres against each clostridial antigen was evaluated in the vaccinated white rhinoceros population (n = 75). Analytical specificity showed slight cross-reactions for C. chauvoei and C. perfringens type A with the other antigens. Individual assay cut-off values were calculated with 95% confidence. Coefficient of variance (CV) values for both the international reference sera and in-house control sera across all the antigens were well below 16%, indicating good assay repeatability. This convenient and fast assay is suitable for monitoring humoral immune responses to clostridial antigens in vaccinated white rhinoceroses.ResultsCheckerboard titrations indicated optimal antigen and antibody concentrations to be used for each respective iELISA developed. Each titration set of the respective international reference and in-house control sera showed good repeatability with low standard deviations and coefficient of variance values calculated between repeats for each antigen. Individual assays proved repeatable and showed good analytical sensitivity and specificity.ConclusionsThe developed iELISAs are able to evaluate antibody profiles of phospholipase C, C. chauvoei whole cells, TcnA, ATX, TcsL in white rhinoceros serum using international reference sera.

Lessons from a conservation and tourism cooperative: the Namibian black rhinoceros case

Wildlife-based tourism is widely promoted as a conservation tool, yet controversy surrounds its net contributions. Procedural problems are under-appreciated and originate from an under-attention to people: their interactions, values at play, and matters of special, shared, and common interests. We offer a case in Namibia of black rhinoceros conservation tourism that attended simultaneously and systematically to the inter-related ecological and social processes involved. We demonstrate how an understanding of social context and the decision making process developed, how outcomes were evaluated and synthesized lessons into prototypic elements as a pneumonic that we term the ‘ACE approach’: (1) establish an Arena for inclusive, open debate; (2) identify and use Conservation-oriented messaging; (3) adopt participatory Evidence-based management for action, feedback, and learning.

Stakeholder perspectives on the value and challenges of private rhinoceros ownership in South Africa

ABSTRACTThe value of private sector rhinoceros conservation in South Africa is a topic of much debate, often fueled by controversies surrounding trade in rhinoceros horn. We used semi-structured interviews (n = 16) to assess perceptions of private rhinoceros owners and other stakeholders regarding the value of the industry and its challenges. All stakeholders attested to the conservation value of privately-owned rhinoceroses and identified poaching as the main challenge. Most of the private owners identified the lack of legal international horn trade as driving the escalation in poaching, whereas other stakeholders perceived a wider range of contributing factors. The rhinoceros owners mostly favored international trade in rhinoceros horn, whereas non-governmental organization representatives were broadly opposed. Other stakeholders noted both positive and negative outcomes. Our results suggest greater collaboration between private sector stakeholders and government agencies will be essential for consensus around future management policies, especially concerning divisive options such as trade.

Conservation of White Rhinoceroses Threatened by Bovine Tuberculosis, South Africa, 2016–2017

Conservation of White Rhinoceroses Threatened by Bovine Tuberculosis, South Africa, 2016–2017

Rhinoceros Conservation and International Law: The Role of Wildlife Treaties in Averting Megaherbivore Extinction

Scientists warn that human impacts are threatening to cause a sixth mass extinction event on the planet.1 Population trends for large-bodied species reflect their particular vulnerability.2 For the...

Realization of poaching effects on rhinoceroses in Kruger National Park, South Africa

The persistence of black (Diceros bicornis minor) and white (Ceratotherium simum simum) rhinoceroses in the Kruger National Park (Kruger) is a key requirement for global rhinoceros conservation targets. Yet, poaching for rhinoceros horn poses a threat. In response, authorities are implementing an integrated response to curb the effect of poaching on rhinoceroses in Kruger. Nevertheless, researchers predicted both species would decline by 2016. The predictions were realized for southern white rhinoceroses, but it is uncertain whether the decline is real for south-central black rhinoceroses. Several evaluations are needed to elucidate uncertainties associated with detecting trends, the most important being to evaluate the effect of carcass detection rates on estimates of poaching rates. Nonetheless, poaching effects on rhinoceroses are disrupting conservation efforts to recover both southern white and south-central black rhinoceroses.