Rhesus Monkey Kidney Cells Research Articles

Host Cell-dependent Modulatory Role of Ras Homolog Enriched in Brain-Like-1 (RhebL1) Protein in Influenza A/NWS/33 Virus-infected Mammalian Cells.

The Mammalian Target of Rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway regulates protein phosphorylation and exerts control over major cellular processes. mTOR is activated by the small G-protein Ras Homolog Enriched in Brain (Rheb), which is encoded by the Rheb1 and Rheb-like-1 (RhebL1) genes. There is currently a paucity of information on the role of RhebL1, and specifically its involvement in viral infection. In the present study we investigated the role of RhebL1 during human influenza A/NWS/33 (NWS/33) (H1N1) virus infection of rhesus monkey-kidney (LLC-MK2) cells and human type II alveolar epithelial (A549) cells. To assess the efficiency of NWS/33 virus replication, the expression of viral nucleoprotein was examined by indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) and the viral yield by fifty percent tissue culture infectious dose assay. An RNA-mediated RNA interference approach was used to investigate the role of RhebL1 during NWS/33 infection. RhebL1 expression was evaluated by IIF, Western blotting, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. A two-tailed Student's t-test was applied to evaluate differences between groups. RhebL1 was differentially expressed in the cell models used in this study. Silencing of the RhebL1 gene led to increased NWS/33 virus infection in A549 cells, but not in LLC-MK2 cells. Moreover, the expression of hyperphosphorylated cytokeratin 8, a marker of NWS/33 virus infection efficiency, increased in A549 cells depleted of RhebL1 but remained almost unchanged in LLC-MK2 cells. These are the first results showing involvement of the endogenous RhebL1 protein during viral infection. Our data suggests that RhebL1 exerts a host cell-dependent modulatory role during influenza virus infection. RhebL1 appears to be a restrictive factor against NWS/33 virus replication in A549 cells, but not in LLC-MK2.

Experimental infection of a porcine kidney cell line with hepatitis A virus

The hepatitis A virus (HAV) induces severe acute liver injury and is adapted to human and monkey cell lines but not other cells. In this study, the HAV was inoculated into porcine kidney (PK-15) cells to determine its infectivity in porcine cells. The growth pattern of the HAV in PK-15 cells was compared with its growth pattern in fetal rhesus kidney (FRhK-4) cells. The growth of HAV was less efficient in PK-15 cells. In conclusion, HAV replication was verified in PK-15 cells for the first time. Further investigations will be needed to identify the HAV-restrictive mechanisms in PK-15 cells.

SiRNAs to Knockdown Antiviral Chemokine-related Genes in FRhK-4 Cells

The objective of this study was to generate small interfering RNA (siRNA) to knockdown antiviral chemokine-related genes in fetal rhesus monkey kidney (FRhK-4) cells. We generated siRNA duplexes to suppress antiviral chemokines like CXCL10 and CCL4 in FRhK-4 cells by downregulating interferon regulatory factor (IRF) 3 and IRF7. Three siRNA duplexes (si-F-IRF3-1, si-F-IRF3-2, and si-F-IRF3-3) targeting IRF3, and one siRNA duplex (si-F-IRF7) targeting IRF7 were generated. A nontarget siRNA duplex was used as the negative control. The nontarget or target siRNA duplexes (si-F-IRF3-1, si-F-IRF3-2, si-F-IRF3-3, and si-F-IRF7) were transfected into FRhK-4 cells using transfection reagents, and they were then incubated at 37°C for 6 h with 5% CO2. After 6 h, the medium was removed, and fresh medium was added to each cell, and they were then incubated at 37°C for 48 h with 5% CO2. The transfected FRhK-4 cells were infected with hepatitis A virus (HAV) HM-175/18f (viral titer: 105 PFU/mL) and incubated at 37°C for 3 h with 5% CO2 for HAV propagation. The expression levels of chemokines, including CXCL10 and CCL4, under the regulation of IRF3 and IRF7 in the transfected FRhK-4 cells were measured using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction after 3 h of HAV infection. The results indicated that CXCL10 and CCL4 expression levels were decreased in FRhK-4 cells transfected with si-F-IRF3-1, si-F-IRF3-3, or si-F-IRF7 (p < 0.05) compared to those in the negative control. These results indicate that si-F-IRF3-1 and si-F-IRF3-3, and si-F-IRF7 successfully knocked down IRF3 and IRF7 in FRhK-4 cells, respectively and suppressed antiviral chemokines. These siRNAs could be used to suppress antiviral chemokines in FRhK-4 cells.

CACO-2 cells: A continuous cell line with sensitive and broad-spectrum utility for respiratory virus culture

BackgroundPrimary rhesus monkey kidney cells (RhMK) can be used for the detection of respiratory viruses, including influenza and parainfluenza. The human colon adeno-carcinoma cell line, CACO-2, has been previously used for the growth of multiple influenza viruses, including seasonal, novel and avian lineages. ObjectiveWe compared CACO-2, Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK), and RhMK cells for the isolation of viruses from patients presenting with influenza like-illness (ILI). Study designNasopharyngeal specimens from patients with ILI in primary care settings were processed for conventional viral culture in MDCK, RhMK, and CACO-2. Cells were examined microscopically for cytopathic effect (CPE) and confirmatory testing included immunofluorescent antigen (IFA) detection and real-time RT-PCR. Additionally, 16 specimens positive for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) by PCR were inoculated on CACO-2 cells. Statistical analysis was done using Chi-square test with IBM Statistical Program. ResultsOf 1031 respiratory specimens inoculated, viruses were isolated and confirmed from 331 (32.1 %) in MDCK cells, 304 (29.5 %) in RhMk cells, and 433 (42.0 %) in CACO-2 cells. These included influenza A/(H1N1)pdm09, influenza A(H3N2), influenza B, parainfluenza virus (PIV) types 1, 2, and 3, human coronavirus 229E (CoV-229E), human adenovirus (HAdV), herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV 1), and enterovirus (EV). Influenza A viruses grew best in the CACO-2 cell line. Time to observation of CPE was similar for all three cell types but unlike RhMK and MDCK cells, virus-specific morphological changes were indistinguishable in CACO-2 cells. None of the 16 specimens positive for RSV by PCR grew on CACO-2 cells. ConclusionsThe overall respiratory virus culture isolation rate in CACO-2 cells was significantly higher than that in RhMK or MDCK cells (p < 0.05). CACO-2 cells also supported the growth of some viruses that did not grow in either RhMK or MDCK cells. Except for RSV, CACO-2 cells provide a worthwhile addition to culture algorithms for respiratory specimens.

POLUDANUM’S INFLUENCE ON REPRODUCTIVE AND RESPIRATORY SYNDROME, TRANSMISSIBLE GASTROENTERITIS AND AFRICAN SWINE FEVER VIRUSES IN PRIMARY AND CONTINUOUS CELL CULTURES

Today studies of the influence of interferon synthesis inducer on human and animal body is a topical issue. Interferon synthesis inducers are substances of natural or artificial origin stimulating production of body’s own interferon. One of the synthetic inducers of interferon is Poludanum. It is used for stimulation of cell immunity which is capable of preventing infection and disease development and has antiviral and immunomodulatory effect. Poludanum mainly stimulates induction of α-interferon and, to a lesser extent, β- and γ-interferon in cells and tissues which prevent virus reproduction in a cell. The paper presents results of poludanum’s influence on reproduction of some porcine viruses in primary and continuous cell cultures by induction of interferon synthesis and other cytokines lowering the level of cell infection. As a result of performed tests it was found out that there is a link between introduction of interferon inducer and change in the PRRS, TGE, ASF virus reproduction. There was detected a high level of Poludanum’s interferon inducing activity in pig testicular primary cell cultures and spleen compared to the continuous pig embryo kidney (SPEV) and rhesus monkey kidney (MARC-145) cell lines. Poludanum’s interferon inducing activity was moderate for MARC-145 cells and it was not determined for SPEV.

Quantification of Infectious Sendai Virus Using Plaque Assay.

Sendai virus (SeV) is an enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus of the family Paramyxoviridae. SeV is a useful tool to study its infectious pathomechanism in immunology and the pathomechanism of a murine model of IgA nephropathy. Virus quantification is essential not only to determine the original viral titers for an appropriate application, but also to measure the viral titers in samples from the harvests from experiments. There are mainly a couple of units/titers for Sendai viral quantification: plaque-forming units (PFU) and hemagglutination (HA) titer. Of these, we here describe a protocol for Sendai virus plaque assay to provide PFU using LLC-MK2 cells (a rhesus monkey kidney cell lines) and Guinea pig red blood cells. This traditional protocol enables us to determine Sendai virus PFU in viral stock as well as samples from your experiments.

Molecular Investigation of an Ontario Mumps Outbreak using Whole Genome Sequencing

BackgroundIn early 2017 an outbreak of Mumps virus affected over 100 individuals in the province of Ontario, concurrent with multiple mumps virus outbreaks across North America. Traditional genotyping of mumps outbreaks relies on sequencing a portion of the small hydrophobic (SH) gene, but has limited capability to distinguish between strains of the same genotype. Most mumps cases in Ontario in recent years are of genotype G. We used a novel whole genome sequencing (WGS) protocol to perform a molecular epidemiological investigation of the outbreak.MethodsThroat (n = 5) and buccal (n = 15) swabs positive by RT-PCR for SH or Fusion (F) gene targets were cultured in primary Rhesus monkey kidney cells. Cell free viral extract underwent RT-PCR and subsequent PCR amplification using overlapping primer pairs to cover the entire 15 kilobase (kb) genome. The first 8 samples were amplified with 18 pairs of overlapping primers, which was reduced to 9 sets (average fragment size 1.9 kb, range 1.6–2.8 kb) for the final 12 samples. Mumps cDNA libraries were prepared with Nextera XT kit and WGS of the indexed fragments was performed with V2 reagent kits on the Illumina MiSeq instrument. Reference based genome assembly was performed using samtools version 1.4. Phylogenetic analysis was performed by maximum likelihood method in MEGA7.ResultsWe identified two distinct genotype G lineages comprised of 9 patients each and closely related to a 2009–2010 outbreak in Ontario and New York (Figure 1). Inter-lineage single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) differences ranged from 25 to 31, whereas intra-lineage SNPs ranged from 0 to 8 SNPs. Two outlying sequences, of genotype C and G respectively, may represent sporadic introduction of virus from other areas. Time from virus isolation to SNP based analysis was approximately 4 days.ConclusionWGS of Mumps virus culture isolates using the PCR fragment method identified two distinct genotype G lineages in a large provincial outbreak. This method may aid public health authorities identify separate transmission chains in the case of large outbreaks.Disclosures All authors: No reported disclosures.

A Study to Assess the Effect of Health Teaching Programme on Knowledge Regarding Hepatitis a among Food Handlers Who Residing in Anand District

Hepatitis A, A Term First Introduced In 1967, Is Known To Be A Liver Infection Caused By Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) Whose Primary Replication Site Is In The Hepatocytes (Krugman Et Al.., 1967). HAV Is A Positive Sense, Single Stranded RNA Virus That Belongs To The Family Of Picornavaridae And Is The Unique Member Of The Genus Hepato Virus. Unlike The Other Member Of Family, HAV Requires A Long Adaptation Period To Grow In Cell Culture, Replicates Slowly And Rarely Produces A Cytopathic Effect (Cromeans Et Al., 1987; Lemon 1992) African Green Monkey Kidney Cells Or Fetal Rhesus Kidney Cells Are Commonly Used For Culturing The Virus Although Many Different Cell Types Are Suitable. The Genome Of The HAV Is Approximately 7.5 Kb, Consists Of A Highly Conserved 5’ End Non Translated Region (NTR) And Has A Covalently Linked Virus Specific Protein Instead Of A Cap Structure. Hepatitis A Suspected When A Person Gives The History Of Fever, Headache, Myalgia, Photophobia, Chills, Malaise, Nausea, And Anorexia And Epigastric Pain For 4 To 5 Days. It Is Since Turned Afebrile And Now Passes Dark Colored Urine And Clay Colored Stools. He Complains Of Generalized Itching. His Eyes, Tounge, Nail And Later Whole Body Are Yellowish. On Physical Examination Of The Patient, Jaundice, Tender And Enlarged Liver, And Some Time Lymphadenopathy Are Found. Laboratory Investigation Reveal Serum Bilirubin Of 1 Mg % Or More (Normal,0.3 To 0.5 Mg %) And Aspartate Aminotransferase And Alanine Aminotransferase Levels Of 300 IU/L (Normal 5 To 30 IU/L). The Diagnosis Is Confirmed By Demonstrating, In Paired Sera, A Rising Titer Of Anti-HA Antibodies. HA Is A Benign Condition. After 2 To 3 Weeks Of Illness And A Prolonged Convalescence Recovery Occurs.

Cellular localization and effects of ectopically expressed hepatitis A virus proteins 2B, 2C, 3A and their intermediates 2BC, 3AB and 3ABC.

In the course of hepatitis A virus (HAV) infections, the seven nonstructural proteins and their intermediates are barely detectable. Therefore, little is known about their functions and mechanisms of action. Ectopic expression of the presumably membrane-associated proteins 2B, 2C, 3A and their intermediates 2BC, 3AB and 3ABC allowed the intracellular localization of these proteins and their possible function during the replication cycle of HAV to be investigated. In this study, we used rhesus monkey kidney cells, which are commonly used for cell culture experiments, and human liver cells, which are the natural target cells. We detected specific associations of these proteins with distinct membrane compartments and the cytoskeleton, different morphological alterations of the respective structures, and specific effects on cellular functions. Besides comparable findings in both cell lines used with regard to localization and effects of the proteins examined, we also found distinct differences. The data obtained identify so far undocumented interactions with and effects of the HAV proteins investigated on cellular components, which may reflect unknown aspects of the interaction of HAV with the host cell, for example the modification of the ERGIC (ER-Golgi intermediate compartment) structure, an interaction with lipid droplets and lysosomes, and inhibition of the classical secretory pathway.

Isolation & molecular characterization of human parainfluenza virus in Chennai, India.

Background & objectives:Human parainfluenza virus (HPIV) accounts for a significant proportion of lower respiratory tract infections in children as well as adults. This study was done to detect the presence of different subtypes of HPIV from patients having influenza like illness (ILI).Methods:Throat and nasal swabs from 232 patients with ILI who were negative for influenza viruses were tested by multiplex reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction(mRT-PCR) for the detection of human parainfluenza virus. All samples were inoculated in rhesus monkey kidney (LLC-MK2) cell line.Results:Of the 232 samples, 26(11.2%) were positive by mRT-PCR and nine (34.6%) showed cytopathic effect with syncytium formation for HPIV and all were HPIV-3 serotype, other serotypes like 1,2,4 were negative. The HPIV-3 strains (HN gene) were sequenced and analysed. Two novel mutations were identified at amino acid residues 295 and 297.Interpretation & conclusions:The mRT-PCR assay offers a rapid, sensitive and accurate diagnostic method for detection of HPIV which enables early detection and control. In our study there was a predominance of HPIV among 1-5 yr age group and the school going age group was less affected. Further studies need to be done to characterize HPIV isolated from different parts of the country.

Ultrastructural aspects of Cystoisospora belli (syn. Isospora belli) in continuous cell lines.

Cystoisospora belli is an opportunistic protozoan that causes human cystoisosporiasis, an infection characterized by diarrhea, steatorrhea, abdominal pain, fever, and weight loss. The lack of animal models susceptible to C. belli, and the difficulty in obtaining clinical samples with fair amounts of oocysts have limited the research pertaining to the basic biology of this parasite. This study aimed to describe the ultrastructure of endogenous stages of C. belli in Monkey Rhesus Kidney Cells (MK2) and Human Ileocecal Adenocarcinoma cells (HCT-8). Zoites of C. belli exhibited typical morphological features of coccidia, which included a trilaminar pellicle, an apical complex formed by a conoid, polar rings, rhoptries, and micronemes, in addition to dense granules and the endoplasmic reticulum. No crystalloid body was observed but various lipid and amylopectin granules were usually present in the cytoplasm of zoites. We observed a tendency of the endoplasmic reticulum of the host cell to be located near the parasitophorous vacuole membrane. Merozoites were formed by endodyogeny and during replication, the apical complex of the mother cell remained intact. The formation of gametes or oocysts was not observed. The ultrastructural findings of C. belli are further evidence of its proximity to Sarcocystidae family members and corroborate their reclassification as Cystoisospora spp.

New, Newer, Newest Human Polyomaviruses: How far?

Polyomaviruses, classified in Polyomaviridae family, are non-enveloped small (40-45 nm) viruses with icosahedral symmetry and circular double-stranded DNA genome. Polyomaviruses can infect a variety of vertebrates including birds, rodents, cattle, monkeys and humans. The characteristics such as establishment of latent infections, reactivations during immunosuppression and oncogenic potencies render the human polyomaviruses (HPyVs) of considerable importance for public health. The first polyomavirus (Mouse polyomavirus) has been identified in 1953 as filterable tumor-causing agents in mice, followed by Simian vacuolating virus (SV40) isolated from rhesus monkey kidney cells that had been used for poliovirus vaccine preparation in 1960. Due to the known transforming capacity of SV40, it was initially thought that the incidence of cancer could increase following the administration of SV40-contaminated polio vaccines, however advanced studies yielded inconsistent results, without any evidence to conclude whether or not the contaminated polio vaccine caused cancer. Several studies have reported the detection of SV40 genome in some of the human tumors, as well as in the clinical samples of healthy subjects. In addition SV40 seropositivity was reported in human populations although in low rates (2-10%). These data have raised the possibility that SV40 infects humans and circulates in human populations unrelated to being exposed to the vaccine. The discovery of the first human polyomaviruses was in 1971 independently from each other, one was BK virus (BKPyV) isolated from the urine sample of a renal transplant patient, and the other was JC virus (JCPyV) isolated from the brain tissue of a patient with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, and both were named after the patients' initials. BK and JC viruses were the only well-known human polyomaviruses throughout 36 years, however drammatical increase in number of newly identified human polyomaviruses was recorded in the last six years due to the use of sophisticated molecular methods and new-generation sequencing technologies. In 2007, two new HPyVs were identified independently from nasopharyngeal aspirates of children with acute respiratory tract infections; one was KI (Karolinska Institute) and the other was WU (Washington University) polyomaviruses, named after the initials of institutes which they were first described. In 2008, the fifth HPyV namely Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) was isolated from the skin tumor sample of a patient with Merkel cell carcinoma. In 2010, three other novel human polyomaviruses were discovered, two were from skin samples of healthy subjects (HPyV-6 and HPyV-7), and one (Trichodysplasia Spinulosa-associated virus; TSPyV) from keratotic spicule sample of a heart-transplanted patient. Another new HPyV was identified in 2011 named HPyV-9, from the blood and urine samples of an asymptomatic patient with kidney transplant. Most recently, three new HPyVs have been sequentially discovered during the last quarter of 2012. The 10th HPyV (HPyV10) was identified in condyloma samples of an immunocompromised patient with WHIM syndrome (Wart, Hypogammaglobulinemia, Infections, Myelokathexis), 11th virus was isolated from stool sample of a healthy child from Malawi (Malawi polyomavirus; MWPyV), and 12th was described from fecal sample of a diarrheal child from Mexico (Mexico polyomavirus; MXPyV). The whole genome sequence analysis of HPyV10, MWPyV and MXPyV pointed out that they are closely related viruses. The last novel polyomavirus, namely Saint Louis polyomavirus (STLPyV) has been reported in a study published on February 2013, identified from the stool sample of a healthy child. Seroepidemiological studies indicated that most of the novel HPyVs are highly prevalent (average rate: 40-80%) worldwide and likely acquired asymptomatically during childhood, similar to the old ones, BKPyV and JCPyV. However data about HPyV10, MWPyV, MXPyV and STLPyV are not enough as they have been discovered most recently. Similarly, little is known about the pathogenesis, route of infection and the relationship with clinical diseases of novel HPyVs except MCPyV and TSPyV which are known to be responsible for Merkel cell carcinoma and trichodysplasia spinulosa, respectively. The expanding repertoire of human polyomaviruses made us think that many others will be uncovered in the future thanking to the advances in molecular methods. In this review, recent developments subjecting new human polyomaviruses have been summarized.

Epidemiology of Commercial Rhesus Monkey Kidney Cells Contaminated with Coccidioides posadasii

On 28 December 2012, the New York State Department of Health (NYSDOH) and the Mycotic Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), were notified of Coccidioides species contamination in commercially distributed tubes of rhesus monkey kidney (RhMK) cells from company A;

Identification of Endogenous Coccidioides posadasii Contamination of Commercial Primary Rhesus Monkey Kidney Cells

Here we describe the identification of endogenous Coccidioides posadasii contamination in commercial rhesus monkey kidney (RhMK) cells and the subsequent nationwide alert that reduced the risk of laboratory exposure. This extraordinary event highlights the necessity for laboratories to remain vigilant in the use of appropriate biosafety procedures, particularly when working with unknown pathogens.

Label‐Free Homogeneous Immunosensor Based on FRET for the Detection of Virus Antibody in Serum

As a member of the polyomaviridae family, simian vacuolating virus 40 (SV40), a non-enveloped small tumorigenic virus with a circular double-stranded DNA genome, was first identified in 1960 in cultures of rhesus monkey kidney cells. Its capsid with a diameter of about 45 nm is formed by 72 pentameric capsomers composed of three capsid proteins, VP1, VP2, and VP3. [1] The occurrence of nucleic acid sequences identical to those of SV40 has been reported in certain types of human tumors, including osteosarcoma, mesothelioma, choroid plexus tumors, and ependymomas. [2] Especially, SV40 is closely related to the human polyomaviruses BK virus (BKV) and JC virus (JCV), for the SV40 genome has about 70 % nucleotide sequence homology with the BKV and JCV genomes. [3] Besides, it has been suggested that antibody to the SV40 in low levels was found in human sera. [4] Thus, owing to the potential human health risk, the detection of antibody to SV40 in serum is expected to be a main approach to human cancer diagnosis relating to SV40. So far, the acknowledged detection method of antibodies to SV40 is serological. Levels of antibodies to SV40 can be measured by plaque inhibition neutralization assay, but the outcomes may take one to two weeks. Another widely used method is enzyme immunoassay (EIA) technology, which is the preferred method for measurement of antiviral antibodies, because it provides greater sensitivity and precision than tissue-culture-based assays. [5] However, the assay is inconvenient and unsuitable for the rapid and simple determination of antibody, due to laboratory operation and the need for skilled technicians and special facilities. [6] To overcome these drawbacks, a homogeneous immunoassay without any separation step could allow the detection of targets by ligand binding interactions under physiological conditions. [7] Besides, fluorescence has been selected for signal output due to its rapidness, simplicity, sensitivity, and reproducibility. [8] Fortunately, it has been found that the SV40 VP1 alone has the capacity to package the viral minichromosome [9] and then efficiently self-assembles to form SV40 virus-like particles (SVLP) in vitro, and that it can be used to encapsulate quantum dots through molecular self-assembly to form SLVP-QDs chimeric particles. [10] SVLP and SVLP-QDs chimeric particles both can stably exist in the presence of appropriate salt concentration and Ca 2 + over a pH range from 5 to 8. [11] Given a hint by that, we report herein a label-free homogenous fluorescence immunosensor for anti-SV40 antibody in serum for the first time. The immunosensor is based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) where SVLP-QDs and graphene oxide (GO) are the energy donor and acceptor, respectively. QDs have always been a popular choice of energy donor [12] in FRET because of a variety of distinguished optical features, including high quantum yield, broad excitation spectra, narrow emission spectra, and photobleaching resistance. [13] However, the labeling the surface of a virus with QDs may affect the viral infectivity and the immunogenicity. [14] SVLP-QDs can solve these problems excellently and keep the strong fluorescence of QDs. But as a coin has the other side, SVLP-QDs may increase the distance between donor and acceptor, which will interfere with the efficiency of FRET. Theoretical calculations have indicated that graphene could act as a superquencher of organic dyes, as a result of nonradiative transfer of electronic excitation energy from dye excited states to the p system of graphene. The rate of this long-range resonance energy transfer was suggested to have a d 4 dependence on distance d, in sharp contrast to traditional FRET, for which the rate has a d 6 dependence. [15] Graphene and GO were widely used as acceptors and exhibited high efficiency in quenching the donor fluorescence emission. [16] Thus, GO was selected as the acceptor, and a FRET-based immunosensor was developed. We revealed the energy transfer from SVLP-QDs to GO and constructed an immunosensing platform which could be used for rapid, inexpensive, and easy-to-perform detection of anti-SV40 antibody directly in serum.

Superiority of the buffy coat over serum or plasma for the detection of Alkhumra virus RNA using real time RT-PCR

RT-PCR to detect Alkhumra virus (ALKV) RNA in plasma or serum has been the standard practice to confirm this infection in the first seven days of illness. In this study, RT-PCR detection of viral RNA from the plasma, serum, and buffy coat (BC) was compared to virus isolation. Plasma, serum, and BC were obtained from seven patients with clinically suspected ALKV infection in Najran, Saudi Arabia. Baby hamster kidney (BHK-21) and rhesus monkey kidney (LLC-MK2) cell culture monolayers were used for virus isolation. Real-time RT-PCR was used to confirm ALKV infection and to detect viral RNA directly from plasma, serum, and BC. ALKV was isolated from five of the seven patients. The virus was isolated from all three specimen types (plasma, serum, and BC) of the five confirmed patients. ALKV RNA was detected directly by RT-PCR in BC in all five (100%) culture-positive patients and in plasma or serum in only four (80%) of the five patients. Three of the five patients for whom ALKV RNA was detected in BC also had detectable viral RNA in plasma and serum. In the remaining two patients with detectable ALKV RNA in the BC, the plasma was positive but the serum was negative in one patient, whereas the serum was positive and the plasma was negative in the other patient. The use of real-time RT-PCR to detect ALKV RNA in the BC was superior to using plasma and serum and equivalent to virus isolation.

Protegrin-1 Inhibits Dengue NS2B-NS3 Serine Protease and Viral Replication in MK2 Cells

Dengue diseases have an economic as well as social burden worldwide. In this study, the antiviral activity of protegrin-1 (PG-1, RGGRLCYCRRRFCVCVGR) peptide towards dengue NS2B-NS3pro and viral replication in Rhesus monkey kidney (MK2) cells was investigated. The peptide PG-1 was synthesized by solid-phase peptide synthesis, and disulphide bonds formation followed by peptide purification was confirmed by LC-MS and RPHPLC. Dengue NS2B-NS3pro was produced as a single-chain recombinant protein in E. coli. The NS2B-NS3pro assay was carried out by measuring the florescence emission of catalyzed substrate. Real-time PCR was used to evaluate the inhibition potential of PG-1 towards dengue serotype-2 (DENV-2) replication in MK2 cells. The results showed that PG-1 inhibited dengue NS2B-NS3pro at IC50 of 11.7 μM. The graded concentrations of PG-1 at nontoxic range were able to reduce viral replication significantly (P < 0.001) at 24, 48, and 72 hrs after viral infection. However, the percentage of inhibition was significantly (P < 0.01) higher at 24 hrs compared to 48 and 72 hrs. These data show promising therapeutic potential of PG-1 against dengue infection, hence it warrants further analysis and improvement of the peptide features as a prospective starting point for consideration in designing attractive dengue virus inhibitors.

Comparative Analysis of the Full-Length Genome Sequence of a Clinical Isolate ofHuman Parainfluenza Virus 4B

We are engaged in airborne transmission and epidemiology studies of respiratory pathogens, with particular interest in human parainfluenza virus type 4 (hPIV-4) and other lesser studied viruses. In this paper, hPIV-4 was detected in primary rhesus monkey kidney (PRMK) cells that had been inoculated with nasopharyngeal swab material obtained from a child with a mild upper respiratory tract illness. Attempts to isolate the virus in pure culture were hampered by the presence of a fast-growing simian spumavirus that was a contaminant of the PRMK cells. Total RNA was extracted from the PRMK cell culture, and PCR followed by sequencing of a subgenomic section of the fusion protein gene suggested the hPIV-4 was subtype 4B. At the time of this work, two complete but dissimilar hPIV-4B genomes had been deposited by others in GenBank. To gain better insights on hPIV-4B, and to test methods that we are developing for viral forensics, the entire genomic sequence of our virus was determined from archived RNA. The hPIV-4B genomic sequence that we determined conforms to the paramyxovirus “rule of six.” Here, we compare and contrast the genetic features of the three completely sequenced hPIV-4B genomes currently present in GenBank.

Successful propagation of Alkhumra (misnamed as Alkhurma) virus in C6/36 mosquito cells

Epidemiological data suggest that Alkhumra (misnamed as Alkhurma) virus (ALKV) is transmitted from livestock animals to humans by direct contact with animals or by the mosquito bites, but not by ticks. To assess the ability of the virus to replicate in mosquito cells, serum and plasma of seven acutely febrile patients with clinically suspected ALKV infection reported in Najran, Saudi Arabia in 2009 were inoculated onto Aedes albopictus mosquito cells (C6/36) and directly examined with ALKV-RNA-specific real time RT-PCR as well as indirect immunfluorescence assay (IFA) using ALKV-specific polyclonal antibodies. The isolated virus was titrated in the mammalian rhesus monkey kidney cells (LLC-MK2). Five of the seven specimens were RT-PCR- and culture-positive demonstrating cytopathic effects in the form of cell rounding and aggregation appearing on day 3 post inoculation with syncytia eventually appearing on day 8 post inoculation. Identification of ALKV-RNA in the cell culture was confirmed with RT-PCR and IFA. The virus titre was 3.2×10(6) tissue culture infective dose 50 (TCID(50)) per mL. Three more viral passages were successfully made in the C6/36 cells. This is the first description of propagation of ALKV in mosquito cells.

In vitro and in vivo toxicity studies of Agrobacterium radiobacter k84 biopolymer (ARB)

Sugar cane molasses is a cheaper carbon source alternative than glucose traditionally used in fermentation processes. In the present study a biopolymer soluble from Agrobacterium radiobacter k84 (ARB) was obtained by fermentation using sugar cane molasses as a carbon source in a process with yield of 10.0 g.L-1. The ARB is composed by minerals (40%), carbohydrate (35%) and protein (15%). In vitro test of the cytotoxic effect of ARB at concentrations 2.5 mg/mL, 5.0 mg/mL and 10.0 mg/mL in LLC MK2 (Rhesus Monkey Kidney) cells revealed a 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC50) of 9.32 mg/mL. In a 30-day in vivo oral toxicity study, Swiss mice were administered ARB by gavage at 5 mg/mL, 15 mg/mL, 50 mg/mL and 150 mg/mL (approximately 25 mg/kg/day, 75 mg/kg/day, 250 mg/kg/day and 750 mg/kg/day). The results did not present any hematological or histopathological signs of adverse effects, leading us to define the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) as 150 mg/mL (approximately 750 mg/kg/day).