Revolutionary Experiments Research Articles

Graphic Histories of Solidarity, in Solidarity

Revolutionary experiments require building revolutionary relationships. This praxis of material and social creativity to reorganise power dynamics and weave connections across weaponised divides, are evident in the content, the form and the backstory woven into Janet Biehl's Their Blood Got Mixed: Revolutionary Rojava and the War on ISIS. Written and illustrated by Janet Biehl, it is a graphic memoir that can be read as both an historical narrative and a blueprint of a contemporary revolutionary experiment that combines political theory and graphic art to tell the story of how ISIS has been driven back in Northern Syria by people fighting for a society based on principles of direct democracy, political secularism, gender equality, and ecological sustainability. Whereas in the past, after the liberation of Rojava in 2012, Biehl spent time interviewing leadership, this book relays her interviews with women across the region and across the various projects of reorganising and defending social, political, cultural and economic life in 2019 after four years of warfare against ISIS and the Turkish state. Reflecting on the relationships that make revolutionary history, and that produce artistic histories of revolutionary experiments, this review article considers the history in this book and of this book, in conversation with recently published graphic non-fiction, and draws on engaged scholarship concerned with the politics of collective knowledge production in and for movements of solidarity urgently needed in the face of the imploding crisis of colonial borders.

One Hundred Years of Revolutionary Experiments in Art Education

“One Hundred Years of Revolutionary Experiments in Visual Art Education” defines and clarifies four often-invoked yet elusive concepts in visual art and visual art pedagogy: “experimental,” “progressive,” “critical,” and “radical.” Using the Marxist-theory based Whitney Independent Study Program in New York as a case study, an institution now transitioning from over a half-century under the continuous leadership of director Ron Clark, it helps write the history of the past one hundred years of revolutionary art training. In particular, this essay argues that the critical theory in contemporary art education taught at organizations like the Whitney Program, though built on a foundation initiated by experimental art schools such as the Bauhaus, Black Mountain College, and Vkhutemas, has dramatically reinvented the terms in which progressive politics are understood in visual art. To truly understand the Whitney Program’s unique form of revolutionary experimentation requires contending with the radical element of its pedagogy as laid out in the definition this essay provides of radical pedagogy, that is, the ISP’s emphasis on social change. This emphasis comes to the ISP in large part from the Frankfurt School, which, beginning in the 1920s, embarked on a critique of the culture and social forms of modernity, exploring the anomie and alienation at the heart of capitalist class inequality. The ISP is radical in the literal meaning stemming from the Latin radix (root), as it questions the basis of art at an ideological level: what roles it serves, and how it can align with other forces in society advocating for social justice, racial, gender and class equality, and economic redistribution.

Los juegos de la política: Las independencias hispanoamericanas frente a la contrarrevolución

In Los juegos de la política, Marcela Ternavasio invites the reader to ponder what would have happened to the Spanish American processes of independence if the Portuguese and Spanish armies had formed an alliance to defeat them. While Luso-Spanish alliance never came to fruition, the question allows the author to dwell on “what happened in the context of what could have happened” (p. 13). Sitting at the intersection of Atlantic politics, war, and diplomacy, Los juegos de la política unearths the history of expectations, fears, and calculation that the move of the Portuguese royal family to Brazil, the restoration of Ferdinand VII to the Spanish throne, and Napoleon's defeat in France generated on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.The book is divided in three parts, each addressing one specific conjuncture and the potential scenarios that this conjuncture enabled. In the first part, Ternavasio compares and contrasts the diplomatic correspondence of different agents of the Portuguese and Spanish crowns to exhume the myriad political calculations that surrounded the fate of the expedition led by General Pablo Morillo. The author shows how the final destination of the expedition (New Granada) emerged from a politization of European diplomacy in which the role of colonial agents in Montevideo, Rio de Janeiro, and Buenos Aires was central. The second part explores the diplomatic negotiations over a double marriage between the Braganzas and the Bourbons and the feverish political realignments and speculation that this possibility elicited. Certainly, dynastic marriages were an established part of European diplomacy, but Ternavasio's analysis reveals the significant role that princesses, Carlota Joaquina specifically, played in forging these alliances (p. 114). Moreover, Ternavasio highlights the role that the Portuguese invasion of the Banda Oriental (present-day Uruguay) played in the international diplomatic arena by influencing the fresh political realignments that the Congress of Vienna had made possible. Finally, the third part traces how the declaration of independence of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata forced a resolution of the Luso-Spanish alliance. The intense negotiations over the type of government that the United Provinces would adopt—a republic or a monarchy—show the significant role that local powers played in the international diplomatic arena. In the end, the book dissects a political game that all players involved would end up losing. In the Banda Oriental, after building one of the most radical political alternatives of the era, the leader José Gervasio Artigas lost his political ascendance and went into exile. Moreover, in the United Provinces, the internal divisions among different regional leaders resulted in the implosion of the central government in 1820. The European powers did not fare well either. The Portuguese royal family had to leave Brazil after a liberal revolution took place in Portugal. Ferdinand VII of Spain faced the revolt of Rafael de Riego, which not only derailed a military expedition to the Río de la Plata but also reinstated a constitutional monarchy under the liberal principles of the Constitution of Cádiz.Ternavasio's methodological choices aid in the reconstruction of a highly convoluted political scenario. The author utilizes the present tense to stress the contingency of each conjuncture and to recover the level of fear, excitement, and scheming that those conjunctures generated among the European nations and the revolutionary elites in Spanish America. Likewise, the author utilizes the metaphor of politics as a game to highlight the capital importance that calculation had in the decisions that the actors made and the actions that they performed. Ternavasio successfully reveals the complicated and convoluted trajectory that absolutist and independence ideas had. In an ever-changing political and military scenario, political players constantly measured their ideological choices against hypothetical alliances that could ultimately secure political and military victory. Ultimately, Ternavasio's methodological choices reveal the profound impact that the Spanish American processes of independence had in international diplomacy. The Congress of Vienna had created a new balance of power within Europe that the revolutionary experiments in Spanish America questioned. As Ternavasio shows, the wars of independence in Spanish America forced the European powers to broaden the geographical scope of political negotiation outside Europe. In doing so, the wars played a significant role in the construction of a global and interdependent concert of nations.This book complements and expands the ideas explored in Ternavasio's previous book, centered on the figure of Carlota Joaquina. Written in agile prose, Los juegos de la política will make a fantastic addition to any graduate-level class on Latin American history. More importantly, it is a fantastic example of the potential benefits that a new diplomatic history of Latin America can offer, not just for Latin American history but for global history as well.

The history of the making of endocrinology in the Russian Empire and in the USSR: A review based on the materials from N. Kremetsov’s book “Revolutionary Experiments”

The history of the making of endocrinology in the Russian Empire and in the USSR: A review based on the materials from N. Kremetsov’s book “Revolutionary Experiments”

The Time of History, the Time of Politics, the Time of Strategy

The theoretical problem Bensaïd tries to confront from the 1990s onwards is the problem of the categories that are necessary to account for the traumatically new experience of history opened up by the defeat of the revolutionary experiments of the twentieth century. Hence the necessity of new answers to these fundamental and inexhaustible questions: How are we to understand history in its relation to human practice and to politics? Can we talk of ‘necessity’ in history, of ‘laws of history’, of ‘determination’, or ‘determinism’, or of modes of causality operating within it? How are we to conceive the notions of ‘historical possibility’, of ‘conflict’ and ‘struggle’? Bensaïd’s contribution will focus on a dialectical notion of temporality that implies a primacy of politics over history and a break with the traditional Marxist notions of a historical subject as an internally homogeneous and fully-sovereign collective force.

Narrating Revolutionary Failure in Sylvain Maréchal and Vincenzo Cuoco: The Legend of Pythagoras

It is commonly assumed that the Terror marked the end of revolutionary experiments with antiquity. Sources from antiquity, however, remained powerful conceptual tools, especially for those revolutionaries seeking to examine the Revolution's failure and to imagine alternative political futures. This article is a comparative study of Sylvain Maréchal's Voyages de Pythagore (1798) and Vincenzo Cuoco's Platone in Italia (1806). Both writers turned to antique sources in order to analyse how the Revolution could be corrected and performed again. Their search for indigenous sources of revolution and reflections on agency and voice would prove influential for subsequent revolutionary theories, including those of anarchism and ‘passive revolution’.

Larry Cohen, indomitable pioneer.

Larry Cohen, indomitable pioneer.

Revolutionary experiments: the quest for immortality in Bolshevik science and fiction

Table of Contents Note on names, translations, and transliterations List of abbreviations Prologue: Science and Fiction 1. The Ray of Life: Science in Revolutions 2. Professor's Head: Isolated Organs 3. Neither Life, Nor Death: Anabiosis 4. The Billionaire's Last Will: Hormones and Institutions 5. The Dog's Heart and Monkey Glands 6. Quo Vadimus?: Human Biology and Human Destiny Epilogue: An Unending Quest Acknowledgements Notes Index

International Criminal Law at the Dawn of the Twentieth Century

The judgments handed down at Nuremberg and Tokyo in the aftermath of the Second World War are generally positioned as international criminal law’s ‘Groatian moment’ and have received widespread attention from historians, international lawyers, activists and students of international relations. Surprisingly, the precedents to these proceedings remain comparatively understudied. In this paper the authors aim to uncover two significant but neglected caesurae in the history of international criminal law. The first, covered in Part I, are prosecutions carried out by the Great Powers against individuals for their role in inter-communal violence between Christians and Muslims on Crete in September 1898. In Part II the authors examine the International Commission at Paoting-Fu, established in 1900 for the purpose of identifying and punishing Boxers ringleaders accused of the massacre of Western Christians in turn-of-the-century China. In these sections the authors describe the origins of the prosecutorial imperative, the operations of the courts, the reaction to their verdicts and their basis in contemporary international law. Finally, in Part III, the authors trace the influence of these seminal and revolutionary experiments with individual accountability for war crimes, crimes against humanity and arguably even what we today call ‘genocide’ on later efforts to institute international criminal proceedings against the Kaiser in the wake of the First World War.

Book review: Politics of Indignation: Imperialism, Postcolonial Disruptions and Social Change, by Peter Mayo

Peter Mayo, Politics of Indignation: Imperialism, Postcolonial Disruptions and Social Change, Zero Books, London, 2012; 121 pp: 9781780995366, 9.99 [pounds sterling] (pbk) Around the end of 2010, Peter Mayo decided to explore writing online. I was quietly intrigued to see that Mayo had taken up 'blogging' and publishing online op-eds, since we had often discussed the opportunity social technologies afford academics wishing to reach out to people who would not normally gravitate towards university libraries, or who do not have access to academic journals online. Between 2010 and 2012, Mayo published several posts in online media outlets such as Truthout, Counterpunch and Gramsci Oggi, and clearly relished the new-found freedom to write and publish in real time, with a sense of urgency, about global events. The majority of the twelve articles in The Politics of Indignation are reworked versions of these original posts. Together with new material, the end result is what Mayo calls a compendium for our 'hard though interesting times' (p. 1): a slim book in which there is much to savour and unravel. There are two overarching, interrelated themes in this book. The first is an impassioned attack on the workings of neoliberalism and the vagaries of the marketplace; the second is a call to arms to resist the gradual destruction of critical spaces, not least spaces for critical education. Mayo casts a wide net for his inquiries, from Chile, Cuba and Nicaragua to Malta and other, more familiar territory: Italy, Turkey, Libya, Tunisia and Egypt. In the process, the narrative skirts around two 9/11s--one in Chile in 1973, and that of New York 2001--the Arab Spring, labour and racism issues in the Mediterranean, and even cyber politics. The focus on 'the global' underlines the historicity of the 'groundswell of dissent, indignation and tenacity' (p. 2) that has been rooted in public protests in the squares and streets of many cities in the past two years. Mayo wryly observes that today's tensions are simply another phase in the 'violence, symbolic and also physical, that marked the birth pangs of neoliberalism' (p. 3). Indeed, the chapters are punctuated by a search for revolutionary alternatives to neoliberalism, and a reminder of the heavy price that has been paid and continues to be paid by people prepared to offer resistance to the mainstream. Mayo takes pains not to romanticise revolutionary experiments, but his sympathies dearly lie with people and movements that work against the grain in pursuit of 'social-justice oriented disruptions' (p. 105). It would be easy to dismiss this book as being over-ambitious in scope, or even sparse in academic jargon, if you did not remind yourself that these chapters started life as online posts. The immediacy and economy demanded by the online medium has encouraged Mayo to couch his ideas 'in a more popular and accessible idiom' (p. 2), and the quality of the writing is the net beneficiary: consistently punchy and unashamedly opinionated, yet grounded as much in academic theory as in personal experience. A May Day demonstration in Taksim Square in Istanbul is an opportunity for Mayo to reflect on worker solidarity. The criminalisation of irregular migrants to Malta from the South, and their subsequent detention in closed centres, is the backdrop for a treatise on the way the 'carceral state' operates a caged environment that would render any human being insane. …

Trajectories in the History and Historiography of Physics in the Twentieth Century

BOMB HISTORIOGRAPHIES, I: BY ANALOGYSeveral months after the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, on 2 November 1945 J. Robert Oppenheimer gave an address to the scientists at Los Alamos that many remembered years later. To gain some understanding of their situation, Oppenheimer told his colleagues one naturally looked for analogy, first to the development of relativity, atomic theory and quantum mechanics in the early twentieth century, and second to the era in which science had disentangled itself from religion in the renaissance. In the early twentieth century science had forced a reconsideration of the nature of reality and the relations between science and common sense; and still earlier its very existence and value had been in question. Oppenheimer thought his analogy imperfect, because nothing in the experience of building the bombs had involved revolutionary ideas.1 Yet both the events he lit upon and the limits he saw to the analogy reveal widely shared assumptions, which have arguably shaped much historical writing on physics in the twentieth century. When academic historians of science first began publishing on the twentieth century, a decade or so after Oppenheimer spoke, they were preoccupied with the subjects of Oppenheimer's analogy, perhaps for similar reasons, and sometimes to teach similar lessons about the relations between science and the everyday. They also incorporated the terms of his description into their analyses of scientific change; yet they rarely dealt explicitly with atomic bombs. After considering the contexts in which histories of physics were written before 1945 in this introduction, the second section of this essay will examine the characteristics of this early concentration of academic historiographical thought. Tracing trajectories of historical concern with relativity and quantum theory will show that in fifty years of historical research, a focus on revolution and ideas has never been fully shaken off, but it has been met by the challenges of social causation, by the demand to pay due attention to experiment and the material dimensions of science, by an interrogation of the political dimensions of work in physics and a concern with the institutions of big science, and also by the rise of cultural histories, some of whose central characters are not scientists at all. From the 1980s, historians have increasingly focused attention on Oppenheimer's situation and the complex demands of physics in the cold war era, so much so that this may well form the present centre of gravity of research in history of physics. Exploring the consequences and limitations of our now explicit concern with bomb historiographies will occupy the third and fourth sections of this essay.First, consider how understandings of the history of physics were shaped in the early twentieth century. Oppenheimer's sense ofthat history is likely to have been formed from a range of sources, but most viscerally through his education and research. As a student at Harvard from 1922 his voracious reading of science texts was so improbably impressive that he was allowed to shift straight from chemistry into upper level courses in physics. After graduating in 1925 he moved through Cambridge, Gottingen, and other European centres before fellowships at the California Institute of Technology and Harvard, and beginning teaching at Berkeley in 1929. There his work in the new quantum mechanics helped found a school of theoretical physics side-by-side with the ever-expansive experimental work on accelerators being led by Ernest Lawrence.2 In 1932, Oppenheimer wrote his brother Frank to say his work was fine, not in fruits but in the doing: We are busy studying nuclei and neutrons and disintegrations; trying to make some place between the inadequate theory and the revolutionary experiments.3 Had he looked for histories of his subject, between his reading in Sanskrit, of Plato, and physics, Oppenheimer could have drawn on only a few professional histories of science, and most of those focused on earlier centuries. …

Sport, Urbanity and Communal Socialism: The Case of ‘Red Zurich’ (1928–1949)

This article analyses opportunities, limitations and impact of communal sport policies in the second quarter of the 20th century by the example of Zurich, the largest city of Switzerland. The period of ‘Red Zurich’ from 1928 to 1949, when a Social Democratic majority committed to the strategy of ‘communal socialism’ dominated the city's executive council, was at the same time the take-off period of both mass and commercialised elite sport. Yet, unlike in ‘Red Vienna’, a specifically socialist approach of ‘Red Zurich’ towards sport is hardly identifiable, with the city administration not privileging worker sports organisations ideologically close to them nor applying any theories of class specific physical education. Rather their policies were in line with contemporary mainstream discourses on health, hygiene and problems posed by modern urbanity. The same can be said regarding the development of sport infrastructure, which despite economic crisis and wartime austerity witnessed a rapid expansion and was closely intertwined with policy fields such as city planning (including the development of green spaces) and job creation. The Social Democratic government considerably improved the position of citizens’ sport activities, but also looked favourably upon private initiatives to build large stadiums, reflecting the increasing importance of mass spectator sport. On balance, ‘Red Zurich's’ sport policies epitomised their overall agenda not to be a hotbed of revolutionary experiments, but an example of solid progressive communal administration.

Bertolt Brecht (review)

Reviewed by: Bertolt Brecht W. Stuart McDowell Meg Mumford . Bertolt Brecht. Routledge Performance Practitioners and Modern and Contemporary Dramatists. New York: Routledge, 2009. Pp, xiv + 188, illustrated. $110.00 (Hb); $28.95 (Pb). There is clearly a need for a fresh introductory book about the lifework of Bertolt Brecht, widely considered to be one of the most influential figures in twentieth-century theatre. One of the first and best of these was Martin Esslin's Brecht: The Man and his Work, reissued numerous times with the title Brecht: A Choice of Evils but, since 1985, out of print. One would hope, therefore, that Routledge – the printing house that provided us with excellent introductions to the work of Mary Wigman by Mary Ann Santos Newhall and to the work of Ariane Mnouchkine by Judith G. Miller – would have filled this need with the latest addition to their series entitled Performance Practitioners. I am sad to report, however, that from the first page, one questions the scholarship of the author and the seeming haste with which the editors at Routledge brought to press Meg Mumford's Bertolt Brecht. There, in the first sentence of the introductory section entitled "Which Brecht?", the years of Brecht's life are listed as "1989–1956." This error is prelude to many others, and to awkward phrases such as a heading that reads "Piscator and other revolutionary experiments" (Mumford 22). Was Erwin Piscator an experiment? Mumford has undertaken a considerable amount of homework in assembling this book, but her arguments are weakened by repeated authorial interjections, such as "it is this writer's position that Brecht had little time for the idea of eternal suffering," and "I prefer to use 'defamiliarization' because I think it more clearly conveys the fact that Brecht regarded Verfremdung as political intervention into the (blindingly) familiar" (Mumford 60–61). The structure of the book is distorted by the author's preoccupation with Brecht's theoretical writings, and the majority of Brecht's dramas are given short shrift. Key pre-Marxist works Drums in the Night, In the Jungle of Cities, and Edward II get, at most, a paragraph each; the author skims over the epic opera The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny and many other later plays in a few sentences. Thus, in the brief discussion of Brecht's enormously successful and influential The Threepenny Opera, [End Page 504] Mumford writes, "The box-office hit The Threepenny Opera (1928), a collaboration of Hauptmann and the composer Kurt Weill supported by private funding, is an example of a Schaustück that has some of the defining features of Minor Pedagogy" (Mumford 23–24). Is such an awkward sentence intended for students of German, of theatre, or of Marxism? Roughly two thirds of Mumford's Bertolt Brecht focuses on "Brecht's Key Theories" and the "Practical Exercises and Workshop" that derive from those theories. Mumford evidently intends this last section for students and teachers in the classroom and/or for actors and directors rehearsing a play by Brecht for performance. Yet she never mentions the fact that, time and again, actors who worked with Brecht insisted that he never discussed his controversial theories of Verfremdung or Gestus in rehearsal. Why then, should there be such emphasis given to the theoretical in his work, when Brecht was not in the least bit theoretical when he rehearsed his own plays? Indeed, one could argue that, when Brecht was triumphant as a director (for example, with his productions of Mother Courage and her Children with Therese Giehse in Munich in 1950 and of The Caucasian Chalk Circle in Berlin four years later), it was despite his theoretical writings about acting, not because of them. Mumford is not the first writer to dwell on Brecht's theoretical writings about acting, but they are, in reality, nothing more than conjectures and after-the-fact assessments of what Brecht thought was taking place when a performer was successful – in Brecht's opinion – on the stage. Included in the book is a refreshing, in-depth examination of "A Model Production" of The Caucasian Chalk Circle, Brecht's 1954 production at the Berliner Ensemble that toured to Paris and...

Experimental history: swinging pendulums and melting shellac

Four hundred years ago Galileo Galilei aimed a telescope at the sky. He revolutionized astronomy. Equally revolutionary were his experiments in physics. Unlike his astronomical observations the experiments remain difficult to understand and replicate even today. Two centuries after Galileo, Augustin Coulomb demonstrated experimentally the law of electrostatic force. It has never been successfully replicated. Yet both Galileo and Coulomb were exquisite experimentalists. The fact is that revolutionary experiments in physics are never finished. They are open for investigation for generations to come.

Culture, consciousness and armed conflict: Cabral's déclassé/(lumpenproletariat?) in the era of globalization*

This paper compares critically Cabral and Frantz Fanon's readings of class struggle in Africa. Class definitions imported from Marxism had a different utilization by Cabral, more close to a pragmatic interpretation based on the groundroots experience. The divergence between Cabral and Fanon's interpretations can be projected to current debates to demonstrate these are still unresolved issues amongst most African scholars when assessing other revolutionary experiments in the continent.

Masques in Jacobean Tragedy

With the aid of a remarkable assemblage of 300 production photographs, sketches, and drawings (60 of which are in color) Bauer traces the efforts of designers, directors, and producers in interpreting the operas for their audiences and their times. Bauer's encompassing thesis is that all these productions are a part of a continuing creative examination of Wagner's work. Ranging from the premiere of each work, through the Bayreuth Style established by Cosima Wagner, the revolutionary experiments of Alfred Roller and Adolphe Appia, the 1920s international style of Emil Preetorius, the Wieland and Wolfgang Wagner style of the 1950s and 1960s, and the current experiments of today, the works of Wagner emerge, through production, as vital and necessary testaments of the human spirit and its creative vision. By so admirably documenting the above, this book becomes an essential study for the scholar, the theatre artist, and the opera lover.

Iran: Broadcasting and Revolution

The purpose of this article is twofold: to offer certain propositions on the salient characteristics of broadcasting in the Third World, and to support these propositions through the illustrative case of Iran. The article focuses on comparisons and contrasts between the Iranian broadcasting system before and after the Islamic Revolution of 1979. The Islamic Revolution had been heir to both modern and traditional communication systems and was faced with the challenge of integrating the two. Iranian broadcasting and socio-cultural, as well as political linkages are highlighted, while attention is also paid to certain unintended broadcasting consequences. The future of the mass media and the integration of the two systems ultimately depend on the political future of the country as a whole. Given the ongoing nature of the revolutionary experiments, the article can be neither detailed nor conclusive. It does, however, offer a provocative point of departure for further investigation.

The Intersex Child

This multiauthored book on the intersex child represents, in a sense, the culmination of a trend set in motion more than 30 years ago by the revolutionary experiments of Alfred Jost, and potentiated by the interaction between Jost the experimentalist and Lawson Wilkins the clinician. Their mantle has fallen on the shoulders of Nathalie Josso, editor of the present work, whose brilliant research on the anti-Müllerian hormone has ideally suited her for the organization of this publication. The book begins with two chapters on normal sexual differentiation, the first being by Josso. She gives a profound review of the physiology of sex differentiation, which includes a two-page calendar of the chronology of sex differentiation in the human fetus. For those readers who may have some difficulty sorting out the various roles of anti-Müllerian hormone, the 5-α-reductase enzyme, and the HY antigen in fetal development, this chapter is a must. The

István Friedrich and the Hungarian Coup d'État of 1919: A Reevaluation

On August 6, 1919, a bloodless coup d'état occurred in Budapest, forcing the Socialist “trade union” government to resign, and bringing Hungary’s radical phase to an abrupt end. Hungary’s revolutionary experiments had been resounding failures, and the majority of the population was relieved. The first revolution of October 31, 1918 had promised democracy, independence, and unimpaired territorial integrity but had brought instead only disappointments— political instability and foreign occupation. The second revolution, which declared Hungary a Soviet republic on March 21, 1919, was no more successful than the first. The proletarian dictatorship, originally welcomed as a remedy for the discredited democratic institutions, rapidly lost its appeal, and the world revolution, initially held out as an answer to Hungary’s territorial mutilation, failed to become a reality. By the end of July, the Rumanian army was at the gates of Budapest and internal dissatisfaction had assumed threatening proportions.

Revolutionary Experiments in Colour Vision

Revolutionary Experiments in Colour Vision