Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Research Articles

Neural correlates of the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory: A cross-sectional structural neuroimaging study in middle-aged adults.

The revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) proposes that neurobiological systems control behavior: the fight-flight-freeze (FFFS) for avoidance of threat; behavioral approach/activation (BAS) for approach to rewards; and behavioral inhibition (BIS) for conflict resolution when avoidance and approach are possible. Neuroimaging studies have confirmed some theoretical associations between brain structures and the BAS and BIS; however, little representative population data are available for the FFFS. We investigated the neural correlates of the revised RST in a sample of 404 middle-aged adults (Mage = 47.18 (SD = 1.38); 54.5% female). Participants underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging and completed health questionnaires and the BIS/BAS/FFFS scales. We used multiple regression analyses to investigate the association between scale scores and volumes of a priori theoretically linked regions of interest while controlling for sex, age, intracranial volume, and cardio-metabolic variables; and conducted exploratory analyses on cortical thickness. The BIS was negatively associated with hippocampus laterality. At standard significance levels, the fear component of the FFFS was positively associated with anterior cingulate cortex; the BAS was positively associated with bilateral caudate; and the BIS was positively associated with posterior cingulate cortex volume. Furthermore, these neurobiological systems showed distinct patterns of association with cortical thickness though future work is needed. Our results showed that the neurobiological systems of the revised RST characterized in rodents can also be identified in the human brain.

Psychometric properties of the Persian version of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ)

BackgroundThe Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ) originated from the Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality. This study was conducted to assess the psychometric properties of the Persian version of the RST-PQ among a group of Iranian adults. MethodThe cross-sectional study was carried out among 600 Iranian adults utilizing a convenient sampling method, following specific participant selection criteria to enhance the study methodology's transparency (including the age range between 18 and 35 years' participants without major psychiatric diagnoses). Participants completed both the Iranian version of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ) and the Five-Factor NEO-FFI questionnaire. Confirmatory factor analysis, employing the multiple indicators model (MIMIC) approach, was utilized in this study to control for demographic variables such as age and gender. ResultsThe confirmatory factor analysis results showed an acceptable fit of the proposed six-factor model based on the English version of RST-PQ (CFI = 0.905; RMSEA = 0.053). Also, Cronbach's alpha values confirmed the internal consistency of the proposed structure. In addition, competing models were also used to select the best-proposed model. In this way, different models were evaluated, assuming a change in the correlation intensity between BIS and the Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS). ConclusionsThe convergent validity results with the Five-Factor Personality measure provided further support and were consistent with previous research findings. It is crucial to have an Iranian-language version of the RST-PQ to promote RST research and show how this theoretical framework aids in explaining and predicting various actions, whether they are abnormal or healthy.

A matter of personality and point of view: How the interplay of reinforcement sensitivity and general attitudes towards pain impacts the responsivity to acute pain.

The relatively stable individual differences reflected in Grey's revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (rRST), with foundations in neurophysiology and learning theory, appear particularly applicable to the study of pain. However, remarkably little research has been conducted in this area. In acute pain, activation of the behavioural approach system (BAS), the behavioural inhibition system (BIS) and the fight, flight, freezing system might depend on an individual's evaluation of pain. It was thus hypothesised that higher-order interactions of rRST traits and pain attitudes affect pain responsiveness. To investigate relationships between rRST traits and pain attitudes and to identify patterns between clusters of participants, we conducted a study in which N = 275 healthy participants filled in Reuter and Montag's rRST-Q and the General Attitudes Towards Pain Inventory (GATPI). Experimental (pressure, electrical, thermal) and self-report data of pain responsiveness were collected in a subsample (N = 113). We found significant correlations between rRST-Q and GATPI subscales of up to r = 0.34. Two clusters were identified, significantly differing in rRST-Q and GATPI scores. Pain avoiders, characterized by high BIS, flight, freezing and negative pain attitudes, were found to be significantly more pain sensitive than pain approachers, characterized by high BAS, fight and positive pain attitudes. Moderate effects (d = 0.56 to d = 0.70) were demonstrated in subjective and objective measures and across pain modalities. The present study expands the scientific knowledge on factors influencing pain responsiveness. Future research is needed to confirm implications for chronic pain prevention and therapy, particularly concerning pain avoiders. We have identified two clusters of participants, pain avoiders and pain approachers, that not only present differential patterns of revised reinforcement theory traits and general attitudes towards pain but also differ in their pain responsiveness. Pain avoiders appeared more pain sensitive compared to pain approachers, both in objective and subjective measurements, with implications for the improvement of chronic pain prevention and therapy.

The longitudinal impact of reinforcement sensitivity on internet addiction among college students: the mediating role of self-control.

As the rapid expanding of internet technology, it is necessary to pay attention to the factors that predict Internet addiction. This study aimed to investigate the longitudinal impact of reinforcement sensitivity on internet addiction among college students and the mediating role of self-control. The study involves two follow-up assessments with a 5-month interval. 383 college students' reinforcement sensitivity, self-control, and internet addiction were measured at two-time points. ①The revised Behavioral Approach System (r-BAS) at Time Point 1 (T1) could predict both T1 and Time Point 2 (T2) internet addiction through the complete mediation of T1 self-control. ②The revised Behavioral Inhibition System (r-BIS) at T1, along with the Fight/Flight/Freeze System (FFFS), can predict T1 and T2 internet addiction through the partial mediation of T1 self-control. Reinforcement sensitivity can predict current and future internet addiction, with self-control playing a mediating role. This study provides longitudinal experimental evidence for the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST), further revealing the underlying mechanisms through which reinforcement sensitivity influences internet addiction. Additionally, it has implications for clinical intervention.

Preliminary Validation of the Pain Relief Motivation Scales.

Pain typically prompts individuals to seek relief. This study aimed to develop and psychometrically validate the Pain Relief Motivation Scales, applying revised "reinforcement sensitivity theory" to measure the neuropsychological systems underlying motivation for pain relief. We hypothesized a 6-factor structure based on previous work, including one Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) factor, one Fight-Flight-Freeze System factor, and 4 Behavioral Activation System (BAS) factors. Items were generated by adapting the reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality questionnaire for relevance to pain relief. Adults with chronic pain were recruited internationally to participate in online survey batteries at baseline and 1 week later in 2021. We randomly split the sample to conduct exploratory factor analysis (n = 253) and confirmatory factor analysis (n = 253). Psychometric properties were estimated using the full sample (N = 506). Parallel analysis revealed that a 5-factor structure best fits the data (21 items): (1) hopelessness about pain relief (BIS), (2) hesitancy for engaging in pain treatments (BIS), (3) persistence in engaging in pain treatments (BAS), (4) relief reactivity (BAS), and (5) risky relief seeking (BAS). Acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach alpha = 0.68 to 0.80) and test-retest reliability (Intraclass correlation coefficients = 0.71 to 0.88) were observed. Construct validity varied from weak to moderate ( r = 0.02 to 0.45). As the first attempt to create an instrument measuring neuropsychological systems underlying motivation for pain relief, the findings show that additional work is needed to refine theory and psychometric rigor in this area. Cautiously, the results suggest that a BIS-BAS model, with minimal Fight-Flight-Freeze System contributions, might be useful for understanding the motivation for relief.

How is variability in physiological responses to social stress related to punishment and reward sensitivities? Preliminary findings from the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality perspective

ABSTRACTObjectiveAlthough personality traits are assumed to have biological/physiological foundations, research has yielded mixed evidence regarding the relationship between personality and physiological stress responses. Moreover, the field has often overlooked the contemporary neuroscience-based personality approach, known as the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) of Personality, in stress research.MethodThe present study examined the relationship between the revised RST's personality dimensions and heart rate and skin conductance level (SCL) in response to the Trier Social Stress Test in a sample of 61 healthy university students.ResultsPiecewise latent growth curve analysis controlling for the participants’ current life stress, smoking use, and caffeine intake revealed that individuals with higher behavioral inhibition exhibited higher physiological reactivity, whereas those with high reward sensitivity showed smaller heart rate reactivity. The behavioral disengagement facet of the behavioral inhibition scale was associated with reduced sympathetic arousal during the stress task. Additionally, reward interest was associated with a larger recovery of SCL.ConclusionResults were generally in line with the revised theory. The study findings were discussed within the paradigm of the approach-avoidance conflict and highlighted the importance of reward sensitivity in stress resilience.

Personality, self-appraisals, and body conscious emotions as predictors of symptoms of body dysmorphia and restrictive disordered eating

Anorexia nervosa and body dysmorphic disorder are often co-morbid and relate to distortions in the perception of self-appearance. It has been proposed that they should be placed in a new body image disorders category in the DSM. Dimensional perspectives suggest that clinical and sub-clinical manifestations of these psychopathologies reside on the same continuum. We explored the correlates of sub-clinical restrictive disordered eating, and sub-clinical body dysmorphia in 396 participants. Our online study tested how sub-clinical restrictive disordered eating, and body dysmorphia relate to self-perceived attractiveness, self-esteem, body-shame, body-pride, authentic and hubristic pride, and personality as described in revised reinforcement sensitivity theory. Body dysmorphia shared significantly stronger positive correlations than restrictive disordered eating with behavioral inhibition sensitivity, body-shame, and body-guilt, and significantly stronger negative correlations with self-esteem, and self-perceived attractiveness. Restrictive disordered eating and body dysmorphia were negatively correlated with authentic and hubristic pride. Hierarchical regression showed that reinforcement sensitivity explained more variance in body dysmorphia than in restrictive disordered eating (Model 1). Self-esteem and self-perceived attractiveness explained more of the additional variance in body dysmorphia than in restrictive disordered eating (Model 2), as did the addition of body-shame, body-pride, authentic and hubristic pride (Model 3). Sub-clinical restrictive disordered eating and body dysmorphia relate to several constructs that may be important in understanding the development and/or maintenance of two proposed body image disorders: anorexia nervosa and body dysmorphic disorder.

Re-examining the relationship between mindfulness facets, attentional control, and dispositional reinforcement sensitivity

This study re-examines the relationships between the five mindfulness facets of observing, describing, acting-with-awareness, non-judging, and non-reactivity, and the affective personality measures inspired by the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (rRST). The rRST measures assess behavioural inhibition sensitivity, fight-flight-freeze sensitivity, and the behavioural approach sensitivity components of reward interest, goal-drive-persistence, reward reactivity, and impulsivity. Research has suggested that relationships exist between specific mindfulness facets and specific rRST constructs. However, some non-significant relationships were reported, possibly due to the small sample used. Also included in the analyses is (self-reported) attentional control, a variable that has not been accounted for in rRST and mindfulness research, but is inter-correlated with mindfulness and anxiety. In a sample of 641 participants, behavioral inhibition sensitivity shared a negative relationship with the describing, acting with awareness, non-judging, and non-reactivity components of mindfulness, and the impulsivity component of behavioural approach sensitivity shared a negative relationship with the acting with awareness facet of mindfulness. This is consistent with previous research. Attentional control shared a positive relationship with the describing, acting with awareness. and non-judging facets of mindfulness. In conclusion, specific reinforcement sensitivity personality constructs and attentional control relate to specific mindfulness components. Trait mindfulness and/or the efficacy of mindfulness interventions could be affected by variations in reinforcement sensitivity and attentional control ability.

Construct validity of questionnaires for the original and revised reinforcement sensitivity theory.

This study highlights psychometric properties and evidence of construct validity on parcel-level for questionnaires on the original and revised reinforcement sensitivity theory. Our data (N = 1,076) suggest good to very good psychometric properties and moderate to excellent internal consistencies. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models suggest a very good model fit for the first-order, four factor models of the Carver-White BIS/BAS scales, Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory - Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ), the two-factor model of revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory-Questionnaire (rRST-Q) and for the bifactor model of the Conflict Monitoring Questionnaire (CMQ-44). The CMQ-44 extends the psychometric measurement of previous trait-(r)BIS and trait-BAS scales. Factor scores of CMQ-44 cognitive demand correlate positively with factor scores of Carver-White BIS and all Carver-White BAS subfactors except RST-PQ-Impulsivity suggesting that CMQ-44 cognitive demand addresses Carver-White trait-BIS specifically and more generally the trait-BAS core. CMQ-44 anticipation of negative consequences and response adaptation correlate negatively with trait-BAS, whereas the second-order factor performance monitoring extends the rRST trait-space and correlates positively with trait-BAS.

Emotional Regulation Training, internet addiction disorder, and the Moderating Role of Brain-Behavioral Systems: Examination and analysis

The purpose of the current study was to examine the efficacy of emotional regulation training on Internet addiction disorder with the moderating role of brain-behavioral systems. The current research is a quasi-experimental study that employs with a pre-test/post-test design with a control group and a follow-up period for its purposes. The statistical population of the research were Internet using students of the second educational level in Islamshahr in the second half of 2021(15-20 years old girls). The research participants were selected using a convenience purposive sampling and were then randomly assigned to three experimental groups (45 people) and three control groups (45 people). Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Questionnaire (r-RST), Internet Addiction Inventory and Emotional Regulation Training scale were used to collect the data, which were then analyzed using SPSS v. 22. Findings: The findings indicated that emotional regulation training can significantly alleviate Internet addiction in three groups of behavioral activation system, brain inhibition and fight-flight-or-freeze response systems. Conclusion: The results of the study support the notion of using emotional regulation training to reduce internet addiction disorder in students.

A New Measure of the Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory

Abstract. The reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) proposes that neurobiological systems mediate behavior and their functioning can be associated with personality. The functions and associations of RST systems were revised into fight–flight–freeze system (FFFS), behavioral approach/activation system (rBAS), and behavioral inhibition system (rBIS); however, there is limited study of the revised systems due to lack of validated measures. We investigated scale structure, sex invariance, and psychometric properties of the revised RST questionnaire (rRST-Q). The rRST-Q showed good fit as a 5-factor structure with free interfactor correlations and was sex invariant, and associations with personality and mental health measures were consistent with theory and literature. The rRST-Q is a reliable measure, and its use will help understand the link between brain, personality, and behavior.

The role of dispositional reinforcement sensitivity and self-esteem in social interaction anxiety and social phobia

Social anxiety is related to normal variation in personality and manifests as anxiety concerning interactions with others (social interaction anxiety), and/or as a fear of social scrutiny whilst performing tasks when under observation from others (social phobia). In revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (rRST) a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) facilitates defensive approach behaviors and anxiety in situations of uncertainty. A fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS) facilitates fear and avoidance behaviors, and a behavioral approach system (BAS) facilitates anticipated reward and/or approach-based behaviors. rRST suggests that a socially anxious phenotype would experience elevated BIS sensitivity, elevated FFFS sensitivity, and dampened BAS sensitivity. We used self-report measures to test if the effects of social interaction anxiety and social phobia (which reflects the fear of social scrutiny) are separable within rRST, as in rRST anxiety and fear are separate constructs. Low levels of self-esteem are a risk factor for social anxiety, thus we tested how two sub-components of self-esteem referred to as self-acceptance and self-assessment predict social interaction anxiety and social phobia. 405 participants (mean age = 30.6; 86% female) completed the online study. Social interaction anxiety and social phobia were positively correlated with BIS and FFFS-flight sensitivity, and were negatively correlated with BAS, and FFFS-fight sensitivity in males and females. Social interaction anxiety and social phobia were negatively correlated with self-acceptance in males and females. Multiple regression showed that for females BIS and FFFS-flight scores were prominent positive predictors of social interaction anxiety whereas BIS was a prominent positive predictor of social phobia. For males the FFFS-fight subscale was a prominent negative predictor of social interaction anxiety. Overall, a synthesis of the present study and previous studies suggests that there may be subtle differences in how trait social interaction anxiety and trait social phobia relate to reinforcement sensitivity.

Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality and Social Anxiety: Mediating and Moderating Factors

Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality and Social Anxiety: Mediating and Moderating Factors

Are reinforcement sensitivity personality constructs and attentional control important predictors of restrictive disordered eating?

The revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (rRST) perspective on personality suggests that a neuropsychological behavioural inhibition system (BIS), behavioural approach system (BAS), and a fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS) produce the key personality traits involved in approach and avoidance behaviours. This perspective on personality can be used as a framework for understanding psychopathology. Self-report research on rRST suggests that restrictive disordered eating relates to elevated BIS sensitivity, elevated FFFS sensitivity, and possibly dysfunctional BAS sensitivity. Disordered eating can also relate to reduced trait mindfulness, which is a broadly defined construct. Trait mindfulness is positively correlated with attentional control (AC) which is a more specific component of our cognitive architecture that incorporates attentional focusing and attentional shifting processes. It is unknown how BIS and AC interact to predict restrictive disordered eating. We tested how self-reported BIS, BAS, and FFFS sensitivity, AC, and trait mindfulness relate to restrictive disordered eating in 464 healthy participants, and 177 participants with a history of psychiatric disorder. We provide new evidence that elevated restrictive disordered eating relates to reduced self-reported AC abilities (in addition to elevated BIS, and elevated FFFS sensitivity). We illustrate that the combination of high BIS and low AC predicts high levels of restrictive disordered eating (but not in all participants), whereas low BIS and high AC predicts lower levels of restrictive disordered eating (but not in all participants). We discuss how understanding the relationship between personality and attentional control can inform the design of future intervention studies.

ERP Indicators of Self-Pain and Other Pain Reductions due to Placebo Analgesia Responding: The Moderating Role of the Fight-Flight-Freeze System.

This study evaluates the modulation of phasic pain and empathy for pain induced by placebo analgesia during pain and empathy for pain tasks. Because pain can be conceptualized as a dangerous stimulus that generates avoidance, we evaluated how approach and avoidance personality traits modulate pain and empathy for pain responses. We induced placebo analgesia to test whether this also reduces self-pain and other pain. Amplitude measures of the N1, P2, and P3 ERPs components, elicited by electric stimulations, were obtained during a painful control, as well as during a placebo treatment expected to induce placebo analgesia. The placebo treatment produced a reduction in pain and unpleasantness perceived, whereas we observed a decrease in the empathy unpleasantness alone during the empathy pain condition. The moderator effects of the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS) in the relationships linking P2 and P3 amplitude changes with pain reduction were both significant among low to moderate FFFS values. These observations are consistent with the idea that lower FFFS (active avoidance) scores can predict placebo-induced pain reduction. Finally, in line with the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST), we can assume that phasic pain is an aversive stimulus activating the active-avoidance behavior to bring the system back to homeostasis.

Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire: Measurement and Structural Invariance Across Age and Gender Groups

Revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (r-RST) of personality is a major neuropsychological theory of motivation, emotion, and personality. To measure the specific components of r-RST, the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ; Corr & Cooper(Psychological Assessment 28(11), 1427–1400, 2016) has been developed. The current study examined the measurement (configural, metric, scalar, and residual) and structural (factor variances, covariances) invariance across gender and age groups for an exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) version of the theorized six-factor oblique model. A total of 901 adults (M = 32.07, SD = 16.38) from the general community completed ratings of the RST-PQ. Multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported full measurement and structural invariance. There was also no difference for the six latent mean scores across gender and age. The psychometric and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Unique Associations of Revised-Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Constructs with Social Anxiety

Revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (r-RST) is a major neuropsychological theory of motivation, emotion, and personality. We report the results of a study that examined the unique relationships of the r-RST constructs with two forms of anxiety: social interaction and social performance. Five hundred and seventy-two adults completed the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ) alongside measures of social interaction anxiety and social performance anxiety. Regression results revealed that, as predicted, both social interaction anxiety and social performance anxiety were linked uniquely and positively with the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) scale score. In addition, social performance anxiety was associated uniquely and positively with the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS) scale score. The theoretical and clinical implications of the findings for social anxiety are discussed.

High avoidance and low approach motivation affect cognitive reappraisal generation in the face of anger

This study investigates the link between the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) and individuals’ capacity to spontaneously invent alternate appraisals for aversive events. Eighty-two women completed the Reappraisal Inventiveness Test for anger-eliciting situations, and quantity and quality of reappraisal ideas were correlated with BIS, BAS, and FFFS sensitivity (RST-Personality Questionnaire). Results revealed that high BIS and high FFFS reduced the total number of reappraisal ideas, indicating that combined heightened sensitivity of the two avoidance systems may deplete individuals’ repertoire of potential reappraisals. RST effects on the quality of generated reappraisals were also found. High BIS and low BAS lowered individuals’ propensity to produce positive re-interpretations, which are considered a more adaptive reappraisal tactic. High FFFS sensitivity was linked to a lower preference for problem-oriented reappraisals. This study underlines that certain interactions of motivational subsystems may be particularly detrimental for successful reappraisal of anger-eliciting events. Our findings reveal potential links between revised RST effects and adaptive emotion regulation.

PERFECTIONISM IN THE CONTEXT OF THE REVISED REINFORCEMENT SENSITIVITY THEORY

The main goal of this research was to examine the role of personality traits in predicting the two aspects of perfectionism – maladaptive evaluation concerns and positive strivings. Personality traits were postulated by the Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, while the dimensions of perfectionism were defined by the Model of Perfectionism developed by Frost et al. The sample consisted of 299 students of the Faculty of Philosophy in Niš (79.3% were female), aged 19 to 29 years (M = 20.34; SD = 1.83). The instruments used were: the Reinforcement Sensitivity Questionnaire (RSQ), and the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS). The main takeaways of this research indicate that the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) is the strongest and positive correlate of maladaptive evaluation concerns, followed by Freeze and Fight. Unlike personality defence systems, the Behavioural Approach System (BAS) shows a negative correlation with the abovementioned criterion. The total percentage of explained variance for maladaptive evaluation concerns is 23%. When positive strivings are used as the criterion, BAS is seen as a positive correlate only in the first step of the hierarchical regression analysis. However, Flight and Fight represent consistent and positive correlates of this criterion. The total percentage of explained variance for positive strivings is 6.9%. The findings are consistent with the Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and available empirical findings from previous studies. Moreover, the results indicate that in the context of the abovementioned personality theory, maladaptive evaluation concerns and positive strivings can be understood as maladaptive forms of perfectionism, which deviates from previous understandings of perfectionism.

From BIS to binge: The role of negative affect in the pathway between personality and binge eating

Recent research has highlighted the utility of using revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) to further understand the individual differences that influence binge eating behaviours. The current study draws on both RST and theoretical models that implicate negative affect in binge eating, with the aim of identifying indirect pathways between individual differences in RST systems and binge eating as mediated through negative affect. Undergraduate students (n = 229, M = 22.67 years of age, SD = 8.95, 76% female) completed self-report measures of revised reinforcement sensitivities, negative affect and binge eating symptoms. Bootstrapped tests of indirect effects showed that negative affect mediated the pathway between the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS) and binge eating symptoms. Additionally, negative affect mediated the pathway between rash impulsivity and binge eating symptoms. This study supports and extends previous research by highlighting the experience of negative affect as a possible mechanism through which heightened BIS and rash impulsivity leads to binge eating.