Revenge Porn Research Articles

The Help-Seeking Behavior of Victims of Image-Based Sexual Harassment and Abuse: A Scoping Review.

Image-based sexual harassment and abuse (IBSHA) has recently gained scientific attention. To date, research has primarily focused on victim characteristics and impact, while little specific empirical research exists on victims' help-seeking behavior, including barriers and facilitators to seeking support. The aim of this scoping review was to examine the current state of literature on IBSHA victims' help-seeking behavior and barriers and facilitators to seeking support. Seven electronic bibliographic databases were searched up to June 2023 to identify relevant literature. Inclusion criteria consisted of (1) English or Dutch language, (2) original empirical data, (3) studying one or more forms of IBSHA, (4) victim sample, and (5) addressing help-seeking behavior, and/or factors encouraging or discouraging help-seeking. The scoping review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis Protocols extension for scoping reviews. In total, 81 articles were included. Varying definitions of IBSHA, sample sizes, and populations complicated the drawing of general conclusions. The research was primarily conducted in English-speaking Western countries with a majority of young, White, heterosexual, and women samples. Prevalence rates of help-seeking strongly varied. Multiple sources of informal and formal support were identified, including friends, family, social media platforms, and police. Informal support appeared preferred. Articles identified several barriers to help-seeking including shame, (fear of) negative social responses and negative expectations of formal support, and facilitators, including desire for justice and takedown of non-consensually shared images. Research on IBSHA is growing rapidly. The field would benefit from further research focused on help-seeking with diverse samples, standardized measures, and intersectionality. Recommendations for policy and practice are provided.

International Prevalence of Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence Against Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies.

The aim of the present review was to systematically identify and examine current knowledge regarding the frequency of any form of technology-facilitated sexual violence (TFSV) perpetrated against women aged 16 years and older. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses checklist was applied when performing the present review. Observational studies reporting prevalence data for any form of TFSV against women aged 16 years and above were considered for inclusion. Four meta-analyses were conducted. One examined data pertaining to overall TFSV, while the other three each addressed a key dimension based on the type of victimization under study. Random-effects models were used to compute pooled estimate prevalences (95% CI). Included studies reported prevalence in 32 different countries at different time points, with 28,220 women being interviewed (16-97 years). A total of 1,437 potential articles were gathered from 8 databases and 17 studies were selected for analysis. Included studies exhibited a low risk of bias (12 strong methodological quality-5 medium). Rates of TFSV ranged from 2.2% to 84%. Global estimated prevalence was 30.60% (95% CI [24.08, 37.12]). The most frequently reported behaviors pertained to "digital sexual harassment" (28.54%) followed by "technology-facilitated aggression and coercion" (16.93%) and "image-based sexual abuse" (6.48%). Present findings shed light on a significant gap in understanding the experiences of adult women. The wide range of reported frequencies underscores the importance of unifying terms and standardizing measurement instruments, emphasizing the need for a cohesive approach to better comprehend and address the multifaceted nature of TFSV.

Exploring the impact of cyber and traditional crime victimization: Impact comparisons and explanatory factors

As cybercrime victimization rates continue to rise, our understanding of their impact, especially compared to traditional crime, remains limited. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted surveys among 910 crime victims, measuring the impact of cyber and traditional variants of property, person-centered, and sexual crime. We compared the impact of: (1) residential burglary and hacking of online bank accounts; (2) doorstep deception and bank helpdesk fraud; (3) in-person threats and online threats; and (4) sexual assault and image-based sexual abuse. Impact was categorized into peritraumatic stress, internalizing problems, externalizing problems, financial impact, and damaged self-image. Our findings reveal that cybercrime impact mostly equals or exceeds that of traditional crimes. Disparities especially emerge in terms of higher peritraumatic stress experienced by victims of cyber property crime, and more damage to self-image suffered by victims of both cyber property and cyber sexual crimes. Furthermore, we identified significant determinants of victim impact among crime characteristics, and social, personal, and demographic factors, some varying between cyber and traditional crime. Our study emphasizes the implications of the technological nature of cybercrime and the relatively active role played by cybercrime victims, while also considering the issue of victim blaming. Furthermore, we underscore the need for targeted victim support and prioritization of cybercrime.

A Comparative Study of the Help-Seeking Behavior of Victims of Contact Sexual Violence and Image-Based Sexual Harassment and Abuse.

Sexual victimization may have serious consequences for victims' well-being. Thus, seeking support is encouraged and associated with positive outcomes. However, no research has compared the help-seeking behavior of victims of contact and image-based (i.e., noncontact) sexual violence. This study explores the differences in help-seeking behavior, and barriers to help-seeking, by comparing datasets from two online survey studies. The findings highlight that victims of contact sexual violence appear more likely to seek help, but also experience the barriers to help-seeking as greater. An exception is the minimization of the incident, which is experienced similarly by both. Future longitudinal research is recommended.

Non-consensual forwarding of sexts: characteristics and overlap with in-person sexual coercion

ABSTRACT This study sought to describe the characteristics of people who non-consensually forward sexts, to examine the overlap between the non-consensual forwarding of sexts and in-person sexual coercion, and to investigate what correlates were associated with each perpetration type (i.e. the non-consensual forwarding of sexts and in-person sexual coercion). In our online community sample of 2,780 emerging adults (i.e. aged 18–30), mostly from North America (97.9%), we found a prevalence of 9.2% for the non-consensual forwarding of sexts and a 13.7% prevalence for in-person sexual coercion. The two types of sexual coercion overlapped; however, more perpetrators of the non-consensual forwarding of sexts had also committed in-person perpetration than in-person perpetrators who also committed the non-consensual forwarding of sexts. Higher sex drive, being a man, greater susceptibility to peer pressure, and self-reporting the other type of sexual coercion were independently related with in-person sexual coercion and the non-consensual forwarding of sexts. Our findings suggest a possible overlapping etiology between in-person sexual coercion and the non-consensual forwarding of sexts and that programmes aimed at reducing in-person sexual coercion could be effective for reducing the non-consensual forwarding of sexts. PRACTICE IMPACT STATEMENT Results from our online survey of 2,780 adults aged 18-30 suggest that using “revenge pornography” to refer to the non-consensual forwarding of sexual materials is unnecessarily restrictive and does not represent the nature of this phenomenon. Further, we found that positive beliefs about the non-consensual forwarding of sexts was a common motivation for non-consensually forwarding sexts, suggesting that social media campaigns educating emerging adults on the risks of the non-consensual forwarding of sexts may be effective in reducing this behaviour.

Tackling Gender-Based Violence to Increase College Students’ Well-Being: A Study on Psychosocial Dimensions Affecting Attitudes Toward the Nonconsensual Intimate Image Dissemination

One of the most recent forms of gender-based violence is non-consensual intimate images dissemination (NCII). This type of offense, popularly referred to as “revenge pornography”, consists of the nonconsensual creation, dissemination, or threat of dissemination of nude or sexually explicit images (photographs and videos) of individuals. NCII is considered a public health issue because of its damaging psychological consequences, especially among adolescents and young adults. According to the social-ecological perspective, psychosocial variables (e.g., endorsement of sexist attitudes, rape myths, sexual double standards, and stereotypes on masculinity) influence and bias perceptions of NCII, but research on these dimensions is still lacking. The present study aims to investigate such variables in a sample of Italian college students (N = 309, 65.4% female, mean age = 21.95, SD = 2.00). The results will be discussed in the light of interventions aimed at raising awareness of violence and its prevention, thus increasing youth well-being in their educational and everyday contexts.

‘A shadow of me old self’: The impact of image-based sexual abuse in a digital society

‘A shadow of me old self’: The impact of image-based sexual abuse in a digital society

“Anything I could do to not have it paralyze me was welcome”: Coping strategies employed by survivors of image-based sexual abuse.

“Anything I could do to not have it paralyze me was welcome”: Coping strategies employed by survivors of image-based sexual abuse.

Perlindungan Hukum Terhadap Perempuan Sebagai Korban Kejahatan Pornografi Balas Dendam (Revenge Porn) di Media Sosial

This research discusses the form of legal protection for women as victims of crime (revenge porn) on social media according to the TPKS Law and the obstacles in providing legal protection to women as victims of revenge porn crimes on social media. This research uses normative legal research. The data from this research is collected by literature study in the form of written regulations, theories from books and journals. The results of this study indicate that: first, the legal protection of victims of revenge porn in the TPKS Law, one of which is regulating the rights of victims such as handling, protection and recovery from cases of sexual violence. Second, obstacles in providing protection to women victims include the deep-rooted patriarchal culture and the distribution of intimate photos / videos considered as consensual. The conclusions of this study are: first, the enactment of Law No.12 of 2022 concerning Criminal Acts of Sexual Violence provides a positive signal in the prevention, handling and recovery of victims of sexual violence such as revenge porn.Second, the entrenched patriarchal culture is one of the obstacles in providing legal protection to women victims of revenge porn on social media.

Image-Based Sexual Abuse Perpetration: A Scoping Review.

Image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) refers to the nonconsensual creating, taking, or sharing of intimate images, including threatening to share images. It can also include coercing someone into sharing intimate images, or sending unwanted intimate images. In recent years, there has been growing attention to the nature, scope, and impacts of IBSA, but comparatively little attention has been paid to the perpetration of these harms. This scoping review consolidates and synthesizes the existing knowledge on the perpetration of IBSA against adults. The review involved a systematic search of scholarly and gray literature across select databases. In total, 26 studies met the inclusion criteria. Studies were included if they were published in English between 2013 and 2023 and reported on findings of a sample of adults over the age of 16 who admitted IBSA perpetration behaviors. The review found that prevalence of subtypes of IBSA varied significantly across the studies. There was consensus that adults who engage in IBSA perpetration are more likely to be men, younger adults, and LGBTIQ+. Motivations were multifaceted, but tended to relate to social rewards, power dynamics, sexual gratification, and retaliatory impulses. Dark Tetrad traits were found to be positively associated with IBSA perpetration. The research also indicates on overlap between victimization and perpetration, as well as an association with other offending behaviors, such as intimate partner violence. Prevention interventions should be focused on changing the opportunities, affordances, and infrastructures for offending, as well as addressing problematic societal attitudes and norms, with early interventions focused on building resilience and self-esteem, and promoting healthy behaviors and respectful relationships.

‘Stupid Girls’ vs. ‘Real Men’: Identity Construction and Social Media Polarization over Revenge Porn

The purpose of this paper is to explore polarization in the discourse of social media commentators over crimes of Revenge Porn. Revenge porn refers to “the nonconsensual sharing of intimate images” (Bond and Tyrrell 2021, 2166), videos, or other intimate material, which are weaponized against its victims. As with other crimes, revenge porn cases are highly discussed on social media, where users might (a) reproduce prejudice and stigma against victims or, contrarily, (b) resist victim-blaming and shaming ideologies as a form of activism and call for empathy (Garcés-Conejos Blitvich and Bou-Franch 2019; Palomino-Manjón 2022). In light of this, this paper examines the discursive construction of the phenomenon of revenge porn and the evaluations proposed of victims and perpetrators on the social network YouTube with the aim of unveiling conflicting ideologies online. To this end, the present study analyzes a corpus of 14,000 comments (ca. 411,000 words) from four different YouTube videos tackling revenge porn cases. The paper adopts a Corpus-Assisted Discourse Studies (CADS) approach (Partington et al. 2013) and uses Sketch Engine to analyze the corpus. Additionally, a more detailed analysis of evaluative resources and linguistic patterns is carried out. Results show that polarized understandings of revenge porn abound in the corpus. Specifically, victim-blaming ideologies are discursively concealed, whereas traditional ideologies regarding sex are overtly encoded. Moreover, male users affiliate with newer constructions of masculinity and dissociate from the illegal actions attributed to perpetrators. Women/victims are generally derogated for not conforming to societal views of common-sensical sexual behavior or praised for their strength in standing social judgment.

When non-consensual intimate deepfakes go viral: The insufficiency of the UK Online Safety Act

Advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) have drastically simplified the creation of synthetic media. While concerns often focus on potential misinformation harms, ‘non-consensual intimate deepfakes’ (NCID) – a form of image-based sexual abuse – pose a current, severe, and growing threat, disproportionately impacting women and girls. This article examines the measures implemented with the recently adopted Online Safety Act 2023 (OSA) and argues that the new criminal offences and the ‘systems and processes’ approach the law adopts are insufficient to counter NCID in the UK. This is because the OSA relies on platform policies that often lack consistency regarding synthetic media and on platforms’ content removal mechanisms which offer limited redress to victim-survivors after the harm has already occurred. The article argues that stronger prevention mechanisms are necessary and proposes that the law should mandate all AI-powered deepfake creation tools to ban the generation of intimate synthetic content and require the implementation of comprehensive and enforceable content moderation systems.

‘We work in the grey around decision making’; how ‘thematic discretion’ can help understand police decision-making in cases of youth image-based sexual abuse

ABSTRACT In this paper, I argue that a new term, ‘thematic discretion’, can help us understand police decision-making in cases of youth image-based sexual abuse (YIBSA). YIBSA can be defined as harmful image-sharing practices amongst young people, inclusive of the non-consensual sharing of private sexual images, upskirting and cyberflashing, alongside other actions. I will be drawing on findings from a doctoral research project investigating YIBSA, which utilised a mixed methods approach, comprising of quantitative analysis of freedom of information requests from 40 police forces in England and Wales, as well as 26 qualitative interviews with police and non-police practitioners, also based within England and Wales. Research findings established that YIBSA is highly complicated, and as a result, police officers utilised discretion at a considerable rate, alongside crafting their own guidelines to direct their decision-making, which is argued to be steeped in sexist and victim-blaming narratives.

Postdigital Bodies: Young People’s Experiences of Algorithmic, Tech-Facilitated Body Shaming and Image-Based Sexual Abuse during and after the COVID-19 Pandemic in England

In this paper, we draw upon a study exploring how COVID-19 and social isolation impacted young people’s (aged 13–18) experiences of online sexual and gendered risks and harms in England during nationwide lockdowns and upon their return to school. We explore the complexities, tensions and ambiguities in youth navigating algorithmised feeds on social media apps such as TikTok and content featuring idealised cis-gendered, heterosexualised feminine and masculine embodiment. Young people repeatedly witness hateful and abusive comments that are algorithmically boosted. We argue that this toxic content normalises online hate in the form of body shaming and sexual shaming, developing the concept of the postdigital to analyse the offline, affective, embodied and material dimensions of online harm, harassment and abuse. We also explore young people’s direct experiences of receiving harmful comments, including girls’ and gender and sexuality-diverse youth’s experiences of body and sexual shaming, as well as boys’ experiences of fat shaming; which, in many instances, we argue must be classified as forms of image-based abuse. Using our postdigital lens, we argue that the ways heteronormative, cis-gendered masculine and feminine embodiment are policed online shapes behaviour and norms in young people’s everyday lives, including in and around school, and that better understanding and support around these issues is urgently needed.

Suicidal Ideation Among Male Victim-Survivors of Financial Sextortion

ABSTRACT Financial sextortion is a specific form of image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) in which an offender threatens to publicly distribute a victim’s intimate images or videos unless the victim pays a ransom to the offender. While other forms of IBSA predominately impact women, financial sextortion is unique in that adult men and minor boys are most at risk for victimization. Incidents of financial sextortion have increased globally in the last five years, yet there is limited empirical research on the psychological outcomes for victim-survivors. However, recent media reports highlight several tragic cases in which financial sextortion victims, especially minor boys, have taken their own lives in response to these coercive scams. The purpose of this study is to understand the prevalence and predictors of suicidal thoughts and ideation among male victims of financial sextortion. Using a sample of 215 victim-survivors of financial sextortion, the results indicate that suicidal thoughts are common for this group. In addition, victims who experience concurrent self-conscious emotions (such as shame, guilt, embarrassment, and humiliation) and hypersensitivity are more likely to endorse suicidal ideation. The results also indicate that among participants who do endorse suicidal ideation, depressed mood significantly predicted severity of suicidal thoughts.

Non-consensual intimate image distribution: Nature, removal, and implications for the Online Safety Act

Research was conducted in partnership with the Revenge Porn Helpline (RPH) to examine the location and removal of non-consensual intimate image (NCII) abuse. By examining reports to the helpline, data were collected to uncover where intimate images were being non-consensually distributed, how they were proportionally distributed across platforms, and avenues for image removal. The data confirm that social media plays a key role in NCII distribution and provides further insight into where images are being distributed outside of social media platforms. Data on image removal indicate that knowledge of how to navigate different types of platforms is important for image removal success, making contributions from organisations such as the RPH vital, and highlighting the need to make reporting processes more accessible. The findings also indicate significant gaps within the Online Safety Act which will need to be addressed if the Act is to effectively protect victim-survivors. In particular, the need to move beyond focusing on services with the largest user numbers and broadening the scope to include smaller high-risk and problematic platforms.

"Your Photos, Your Fault": Masculine Honor Beliefs and Perceptions of Revenge Pornography.

We examined how individual differences in masculine honor beliefs (MHBs) related to third-person perceptions of revenge pornography (i.e., a man distributing nude photos of his ex-girlfriend) in response to a break-up. Consistent with our hypotheses, higher levels of MHBs were associated with higher ratings of the woman as negative, higher levels of victim-blaming the woman, and higher ratings of revenge pornography as justified. Furthermore, participants perceived the woman as more at fault, and the man's behavior as more justified, when she cheated on him prior to his revenge (compared to when she did not cheat). Overall, our results suggest that both higher levels of MHBs and instances of infidelity inspire beliefs that disempower women victims. Our research extends our understanding of how MHBs and situational factors relate to perceptions of revenge pornography, including its justification and the stigmatization of its victims.

Siyasah qadhaiyyah’s Invention on the Right to be a Victim of Revenge Porn

This research aims to investigate the background and rights of revenge porn victims in Bandung City, while also examining Siyasah Qadhaiyah's perspective on this issue. The research method employed is qualitative descriptive analysis with an empirical juridical approach to gather and analyze data related to these cases. The findings reveal that the background of revenge porn involves easy access to technology, extortion by former partners, and legal inadequacies in combating cybercrimes. LBH Bandung emphasizes the victims' need for legal, psychological, and social support. Victim rights, including privacy, control over personal information, access to justice, and legal protection, are crucial for their recovery and are regulated in various laws such as Human Rights Law, ITE Law, Pornography Law, and the Law on Elimination of Sexual Violence. Regarding Siyasah Qadhaiyah, there is alignment with the principles of state trust and responsibility in shaping regulations according to Islamic legal principles and public welfare. Government policies in formulating the Law on Elimination of Sexual Violence and efforts in psychology, technology, law enforcement, and preventive measures, signify an orientation toward the public interest. The impact of this research lies in a better understanding of the issue of revenge porn, highlighting the need for legal and psychological protection for victims, and ensuring the fulfillment of their rights for their recovery within society. It provides a foundation for further policies that accommodate victim protection and strengthen regulations related to cybercrimes.

A ‘design justice’ approach to developing digital tools for addressing gender-based violence: exploring the possibilities and limits of feminist chatbots

ABSTRACT Digital tools, such as safety apps, reporting portals, and chatbots, are increasingly being used by victim-survivors of gender-based violence to report unlawful activity and access specialized support and information. Despite their limitations, these interventions offer a range of potential benefits, such as enhancing decisional certainty, promoting safety behaviors, and fostering positive psychological outcomes. In this paper, we introduce an innovative ‘design justice’ approach to the development of digital tools for addressing gender-based violence. Drawing on our experience of building a feminist chatbot focused on image-based sexual abuse, we argue that the integration of feminist principles throughout the design, content, and evaluation stages is crucial for mitigating the risk of harm and promoting positive outcomes. Our theory-informed and practice-led approach can help to guide the development of other digital tools for addressing gender-based violence. Nonetheless, more scholarly research is needed to investigate the use, efficacy, and impacts of such interventions, at the core of which should be interdisciplinary collaboration between subject matter experts, victim-survivors, technical specialists, and other key stakeholders.

Image-based sexual violence and imperfect victims: the case for platform cooperativism in the online sex industry

ABSTRACT There is growing need for greater empirical understanding of the data violence experienced by online sex workers. Popular discourse about image-based sexual violence (IBSV), or ‘revenge porn’, often fails to identify the widespread proliferation of this practice within sexual services. This occurs as both consumers and adult-services platforms surreptitiously record and post performances on porn sites without consent, which can have severe implications for workers’ mental and social well-being. First, I apply a workerist lens to the neoliberal sexual agenda, which governs the (in)visibility and (un)freedom of online performers (OPs) across a variety of institutional settings. This exposes how top-down ideological power relations disappears OPs from legislative approaches to IBSV. Second, I show how IBSV emulates the tendencies of the platform business model, such as data appropriation and surveillance. I conclude with solutions including protections based in technology and human rights law, alongside platform cooperative development within a wider decriminalization framework.