Reuse Of Agricultural Drainage Water Research Articles

Chemical and Ecotoxicological Assessment of Agricultural Drainage Water from a Maize Crop Area: A Case Study in the Tejo Basin (Portugal)

The use of agricultural drainage water (ADW) in irrigation is a great challenge, improving water use efficiency, nutrient circularity, and avoiding surface and ground-water contamination. The objective of this study was to evaluate the chemical and ecotoxicological characteristics of an ADW to analyze the safety of its reuse. An irrigated area with maize crops was selected (Tejo Basin, Portugal), where a subsurface structure for the recovery of ADW was installed, collecting the drainage in a pond and recycling it for crop irrigation. Water was collected monthly during the irrigation campaign of 2021 (April to August). Three herbicides and two metabolites were quantified, reaching a maximum concentration of 0.74 µg L−1 for S-metolachlor and 0.48 µg L−1 for terbuthylazine. The lethal bioassays did not detect toxicity, except for the sample collected in August toward Vibrio fisheri (EC50 = 25.2%). The samples were not toxic to Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, with a growth inhibition rate of less than 10%. The low lethal and sublethal effects may be ascribed to the high nutrient concentration (e.g., 1.76 mg P L−1 and 98.9 mg NO3− L−1, in July) that could have masked toxic effects. Ecotoxicological responses support the option of ADW reuse in irrigation, offering a safe and sustainable solution for water and nutrient management.

ECONOMIC VALUATION OF IRRIGATING TOMATO PLANTS WITH AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE WATER REMEDIATED WITH DHS TECHNOLOGY

An economic evaluation of the effect of irrigating tomato plants with agricultural drainage water remediated with DHS technology was conducted in a field experiment at Rahawy, Giza governorate. According to the findings, Egypt's reuse of agricultural drainage water meets around 15% of its irrigation needs, while the overall expenses of remediating one cubic metre of agricultural drainage water using DHS technology reached LE 1.03. The volume of irrigation water used to grow tomato plants decreased by 5% in non-remediated soil ecosystems, 14% in soil ecosystems remediated by microbial inoculation and fortified by bentonite clay mineral, and 22% in soil ecosystems receiving a mix of clay minerals, rock phosphate, and sulphur and inoculated by Thiobacillus sps and phosphate dissolving bacteria PDB. the productivity of one feddan of tomato crop irrigated with non-remediated agricultural drainage water reached 11.31 tons per feddan, irrigation with agricultural drainage water increased tomato crop by about 31%, all studied indicators of the economic efficiency of tomato production grown in remediated soil ecosystem and irrigated with remediated agricultural drainage water were higher than their counterparts grown in non-remediated soil ecosystem and irrigated with non-remediated agricultural drainage water, total tomato yield increased under irrigation with remediated agricultural drainage to LE 31.668, reaching 47% over its counterpart grown in non-remediated soil ecosystem irrigated with non-remediated agricultural drainage water, the net yield per feddan increased by 716% under irrigation with remediated agricultural drainage water over its counterpart irrigated with non-remediated agricultural drainage water. When irrigated with remediated agricultural drainage water, the cost of one tonne of tomato fruits harvested from non-remediated, remediated with bacteria, or remediated with clay minerals soil ecosystems decreased by 11%, 40%, and 44%, respectively, when compared to its counterparts irrigated with non-remediated agricultural drainage water. The profitability of one pound spent on tomato fruits harvested from non-remediated, remediated with bacteria, or remediated with clay minerals soil ecosystems decreased by 598 percent, 1010 percent, and 163 percent more than its counterpart irrigated with non-remediated agricultural drainage water, respectively, under irrigation with remediated agricultural drainage water. The net return of the water unit increased by 761 percent, 1367 percent, and 282 percent in tomato fruits harvested from non-remediated, remediated with certain microorganisms, or remediated with clay minerals soil ecosystems under irrigation with remediated agricultural drainage water, respectively, over its counterpart irrigated with non-remediated agricultural drainage water. The estimated profitability of each pound spent on agricultural drainage water remediation was LE 2.36 for tomato plants growing in an unremediated soil ecosystem, LE 10.07 for those remediated with specific microbes, and LE 33.43 for those remediated with clay minerals. The economic valuation of irrigating tomato plants with agricultural drainage water remediated with DHS technology was good, which will support farmers' social acceptance and sustainability of DHS use.

THE NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL WATER POLICIES WITH FOCUS ON THE DRAINAGE WATER REUSE PRACTICES AND THE MEGA WATER PROJECTS

The overgrowing water scarcity in Egypt should be the motive to develop alternative water resources. The article focuses on a technical review of the state-of-the-art water policies for the reuse of agricultural drainage water in irrigation worldwide and in Egypt, due to the increasing pace of implementing mega water projects. Satisfying future water demands in Egypt depends on better utilization and efficient use of the available water resources. Optimal water management, particularly the nonconventional water resources, is an essential prerequisite for the sustainable development of Egypt. The hypotheses examined are that the available quantities of agricultural drainage water in Egypt shall decrease and the quality of that drainage water shall improve. In the meantime, it is expected that soil and water salinity rates shall rise as a result of the multiple reuses of the drainage water and also due to the expansion of modern irrigation practice not only in the newly reclaimed desert lands but also in some old heavy soil lands. In addition, a technical review of the impacts of those changes above on the phenomenon of seawater intrusion in the northern parts of the Nile Delta is presented. It is concluded that the impact of the national water-saving, irrigation improvement projects, and expansion in land reclamation in the desert are inversely proportional to the resulting amount of agricultural drainage water in Egypt. That reduction is interpreted as about 20%, which needs further extensive applied research to verify. That amount might be compensated with the safe reuse of treated wastewater, with the due health safeguards. Accordingly, as stated in the NWRP2037, caution should be taken while projecting the future available agricultural drainage water for reuse in each geographic zone in Egypt.

Economic valuation of irrigating tomato plants with agricultural drainage water remediated with DHS technology

An economic evaluation of the effect of irrigating tomato plants with agricultural drainage water remediated with DHS technology was conducted in a field experiment at Rahawy, Giza governorate. According to the findings, Egypt's reuse of agricultural drainage water meets around 15% of its irrigation needs, while the overall expenses of remediating one cubic metre of agricultural drainage water using DHS technology reached LE 1.03. The volume of irrigation water used to grow tomato plants decreased by 5% in non-remediated soil ecosystems, 14% in soil ecosystems remediated by microbial inoculation and fortified by bentonite clay mineral, and 22% in soil ecosystems receiving a mix of clay minerals, rock phosphate, and sulphur and inoculated by Thiobacillus sps and phosphate dissolving bacteria PDB. the productivity of one feddan of tomato crop irrigated with non-remediated agricultural drainage water reached 11.31 tons per feddan, irrigation with agricultural drainage water increased tomato crop by about 31%, all studied indicators of the economic efficiency of tomato production grown in remediated soil ecosystem and irrigated with remediated agricultural drainage water were higher than their counterparts grown in non-remediated soil ecosystem and irrigated with non-remediated agricultural drainage water.

Opportunities for Treatment and Reuse of Agricultural Drainage in the United States

Irrigation accounts for 42% of the total freshwater withdrawals in the United States. Climate change, the pressure of a growing population, degrading water quality, and increased competition from other sectors could constrain continuous supply to meet future agricultural water demand. This study presents an evaluation framework to assess the potential reuse of agricultural drainage water for crop irrigation. Using a regional approach, we review the current state of agricultural drainage treatment and reuse and the institutional, economic, and other barriers that can influence the reuse decision. In the 31 eastern states, agricultural drainage contains valuable nutrients that can be reused for irrigation with minimal treatment, while the 17 western states struggle with large volumes of saline drainage that can contain constituents of concern (e.g., selenium), preventing reuse without treatment. Using a new decision-support tool called WaterTAP3, a potential treatment train for saline agricultural drainage was analyzed to identify treatment challenges, research needs, and the potential implementation at a larger scale. As demonstrated by our case study, desalination of agricultural drainage is costly and energy intensive and will require sizable investments to fully develop and optimize technologies as well as manage the generated waste and brine.

A comprehensive management model to maximize the benefits of agriculture drainage water reuse.

Water scarcity in Egypt is an escalating challenge due to the ever-increasing water demands and limited resources. Economically, agricultural drainage water reuse (ADWR) in irrigation is an essential option to cope with freshwater shortage. However, it requires environmentally sound management to minimize possible risks on irrigated soils and human health. Consequently, this research aims at assessing and managing the reuse process by developing a statistically based quality control model capable to investigate the observed and expected capability of the process. Additionally, complementary corrective actions and the decision models were proposed when the reuse processes operate in violation of the standards. These models were tested and validated using data collected from the year 2015 to 2019 at the Delengat pump station in the Western Nile Delta region, which mixes the Delengat drain water with the El-Hager irrigation canal. After raising the awareness amongst the farmers and providing them adequate sanitation services, it was inferred that the ADWR process could provide safe drainage water to be mixed with fresh water. Based on the performed simulations, both models proved to be systematic, quantitative, suitable for computers, and helpful in making informed decisions concerning the sustainability of the reuse process under future water uncertainty. PRACTITIONER POINTS: ▪In Egypt, drainage water reuse is an essential option to cope freshwater shortage. ▪A statistically based quality control model was developed to investigate the capability of the agriculture drainage water reuse process. ▪Additionally, complementary corrective actions and decision models were proposed when the reuse processes operate in violation of the standards. ▪Both the models proved helpful in making informed decisions concerning the sustainability of the reuse process under the future water uncertainty.

The Effects of Climate Change on the Reuse of Agricultural Drainage Water in Irrigation

Climate change is projected to have a major impact on agricultural water resources availability. Comprehending the effects of climate change on water supplies for agriculture is an essential aid for the effective management of available water resources. A forecasting model, a surface water quality model coupled with an optimization algorithm have been used in forecasting agricultural water quality and to maximize the reuse of wastewater in the Osan watershed, South Korea. In forecasting water quality and streamflow parameters for a 30 year period, AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) was used. Both ARIMA model fit and model performance were within accepted levels. Water quality and quantity were simulated using the QUAL2Kw model. Jaya algorithm was executed to optimize the process for determining optimal quantities for agricultural drainage water (ADW) reused at withdrawal points. Simulations of water quality show that organic matter levels are key attributes in the management of the Osan drain. QUAL2Kw model calibration and validation show that the model can be applicable with values of Nash—Sutcliffe model efficiency (NSE) > 0.5 respectively. Water quality results show that Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Total Nitrogen (TN) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) were within acceptable ranges. ADW is suitable for indirect irrigation in the Osan watershed as water quality standards meets Korea’s standards and Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) Guidelines. Irrigation water demand will increase by 47.1 % for summer and by 16.5% for winter by 2050 due to an increase in temperature. The total agricultural ADW reuse amounts will increase by 47.4% for summer and 17.5% for winter by 2050 due to the creation of farmlands, as there will be an increase in food demand. Optimization results show that drainage water availability will increase by 31.6% and 21.3% respectively for summer and winter by 2050 due to climate change effects. Overall, the results show that the reuse of ADW demand and the available amounts is most likely affected by climate change.

Assessment of agricultural drainage water reuse for irrigation in El-Behira Governorate, Egypt

ABSTRACT Agriculture sector and food security of Egypt are under stresses due to the shortage of freshwater budget. Agricultural drainage water reuse can be considered as the most appropriate solution to overcome the irrigation water shortage. Quality of the reused drainage water is of concern, particularly in arid regions, such as Egypt, due to salinity problems. Therefore, water quality assessment for reuse projects is essential. The objective of this work is to assess three different drainage water reuse projects in El-Behira Governorate, Egypt, based on experimental records and water quality index approach. Thirty-six water samples were seasonally collected from three different projects during 2017. Drainage water, freshwater and blended water were evaluated according to the Egyptian and international (FAO) guidelines for drainage and irrigation water. Moreover, CCME-WQI and NSF-WQI were applied to assess the drainage and irrigation water according to the Egyptian standards. Most the recorded parameters for drainage and irrigation water exceeded the permissible limits. The results confirmed the “Poor” and “Marginal” water quality status of all studied drains (drainage water) according to the Egyptian standards. The water quality status of all studied canals (blended water) was classified as “Bad” according to NSF-WQI. These results confirm that current drainage and blended water in the study are shouldn’t be used. To avoid deterioration of the soil, crops, food security elements and health protection, treatment systems for drainage water are urgently recommended. Drainage water reuse projects should be carefully installed, and water quality assessment should be accompanied with these projects. This study is the base for an ongoing pilot project of using a low-cost drainage water improvement technology which can be considered as a supplemented tool to drainage water reuse.

Drainage Water Reuse under Water Scarcity

Water resources management in arid regions and semi-arid such as Egypt is a continuous process for the achievement of rational use of the scarce water resources for the benefit of the national economy. Water scarcity in Egypt is a major challenge, which is annually increasing due to the high water demand of different sectors, while the share of Egypt from the Nile is fixed at 55.5 billion cubic meter (BCM). Non-conventional water resources, such as drainage water, are essential alternatives to improve the water use efficiency. In Nile Delta, a considerable number of reuse pump stations (RPSs) are distributed along the drains network already decades ago. But farmers are unofficially using small pumps to divert drainage water directly to their fields. The major concern in the reuse of agricultural drainage water is the build-up of salts. This research aims to assess the water balance in El-Behira governorate to reduce the negative impacts of water scarcity on the crop yield, soil deterioration, evapotranspiration. The model was calibrated using the water and agriculture data of the year 2014 which was used as a base year then it was validated using the data of year 2015. Two statistical goodness-of-fit coefficients [Nash–Sutcliffe model efficiency coefficient (NSE) and ratio of the root mean square error to the standard deviation of measured data (RSR)] were used to assess the re-calibration and validation of the model; where the results of the model showed good and very good performance with the observations. In addition; the water allocation of the study area was simulated by the SIWARE Model during the studied two years to assess the current water uses and soil conditions, while the results are visualized using Geographical Information System (GIS) as an essential tool for a decision support system. The simulation results indicated that the study area suffers from water stress that forces the farmers to unofficially reuse the drainage water. Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the unofficially reused water ranged between Medium and high hazard salinities that gives restrictions on the crop pattern, causes hygienic risks, and increases the pollution in the shallow aquifer.

Reuse of Agriculture Drainage Water in a Mixed Land-Use Watershed

Water demand in Korea has triggered the need for fresh water to be used for agriculture. Agricultural drainage water (ADW) is a way of coping with the growing demand for fresh water for agriculture. In this study, a water quality model (WQM), and an algorithm were used in order to determine the water quality and optimize the water reuse quantity in the Osan stream drain, South Korea. The water quality associated with the drain was stimulated using the QUAL2Kw model and the uncertainty analysis and sensitivity analysis with the use of Monte Carlos Simulation was performed to determine the performance of the WQM. Jaya algorithm technology was used as an optimization tool to find optimal ADW reuse quantities at particular withdrawal points. For calibration and validation, the model was applied twice for both summer and winter seasons. The results show that the reuse quantities represent 77.2% and 49.8% of the available ADW in the study area for summer and winter, respectively, representing 49.1% and 54.5% of seasonal canal delivery. The utilization of the simulation-optimization model is usually well suited for decision support leading to near-optimum reuse assortment of ADW for irrigation.

ECONOMICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS FOR RE-USE OF AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE WATER IRRIGATION OF AGRICULTURE ABSTRACT FOR A SAMPLE OF FARMERS IN GIZA GOVERNORATE

The study aimed to study the economic and environmental effects of the re-use of agricultural drainage water. The study found that despite the decline in net revenues, for the productivity and economic crops studied, it should be noted that the re-use of water resources, in general, and water drainage in particular. The study indicates that the intensification of the use of water and bring Egypt's largest hydro unit returns while experiencing Egypt where shortages water resources and their limitations. In spite of the economic benefits of re-use of agricultural drainage water, but there are a number of negative impacts on agricultural and human environment due to the use of this water in agriculture, which requires him to improve water quality and further chemical analyzes to mitigate these effects, as well as work on activating the role of Agricultural Extension agricultural cooperation to increase awareness by methods dealing with irrigation water and avoid risks resulting from it.

Multi-objective models of waste load allocation toward a sustainable reuse of drainage water in irrigation.

The present study proposes a waste load allocation (WLA) framework for a sustainable quality management of agricultural drainage water (ADW). Two multi-objective models, namely, abatement-performance and abatement-equity-performance, were developed through the integration of a water quality model (QAUL2Kw) and a genetic algorithm, by considering (1) the total waste load abatement, and (2) the inequity among waste dischargers. For successfully accomplishing modeling tasks, we developed a comprehensive overall performance measure (E wla ) reflecting possible violations of Egyptian standards for ADW reuse in irrigation. This methodology was applied to the Gharbia drain in the Nile Delta, Egypt, during both summer and winter seasons of 2012. Abatement-performance modeling results for a target of E wla = 100% corresponded to the abatement ratio of the dischargers ranging from 20.7 to 75.6% and 29.5 to 78.5% in summer and in winter, respectively, alongside highly shifting inequity values. Abatement-equity-performance modeling results for a target of E wla = 90% unraveled the necessity of increasing treatment efforts in three out of five dischargers during summer, and four out of five in winter. The trade-off curves obtained from WLA models proved their reliability in selecting appropriate WLA procedures as a function of budget constraints, principles of social equity, and desired overall performance level. Hence, the proposed framework of methodologies is of great importance to decision makers working toward a sustainable reuse of the ADW in irrigation.

Simulation-based optimization framework for reuse of agricultural drainage water in irrigation

A simulation-based optimization framework for agricultural drainage water (ADW) reuse has been developed through the integration of a water quality model (QUAL2Kw) and a genetic algorithm. This framework was applied to the Gharbia drain in the Nile Delta, Egypt, in summer and winter 2012. First, the water quantity and quality of the drain was simulated using the QUAL2Kw model. Second, uncertainty analysis and sensitivity analysis based on Monte Carlo simulation were performed to assess QUAL2Kw's performance and to identify the most critical variables for determination of water quality, respectively. Finally, a genetic algorithm was applied to maximize the total reuse quantity from seven reuse locations with the condition not to violate the standards for using mixed water in irrigation. The water quality simulations showed that organic matter concentrations are critical management variables in the Gharbia drain. The uncertainty analysis showed the reliability of QUAL2Kw to simulate water quality and quantity along the drain. Furthermore, the sensitivity analysis showed that the 5-day biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, total dissolved solids, total nitrogen and total phosphorous are highly sensitive to point source flow and quality. Additionally, the optimization results revealed that the reuse quantities of ADW can reach 36.3% and 40.4% of the available ADW in the drain during summer and winter, respectively. These quantities meet 30.8% and 29.1% of the drainage basin requirements for fresh irrigation water in the respective seasons.

A simulation-based suitability index of the quality and quantity of agricultural drainage water for reuse in irrigation

The suitability of agricultural drainage water (ADW) for reuse in irrigation was indexed based on a simulation of quality and quantity. The ADW reuse index (DWRI) has two components; the first one indicates the suitability of water quality (QLT) for reuse in irrigation based on the mixing ratio of ADW to canal irrigation water without violating the standards of using mixed water in irrigation, while the second indicates the available water quantity (QNT) based on the ratio of the available ADW to the required reuse discharge to meet the irrigation requirements alongside the drain. The QLT and QNT values ranged from 0 to ≥3 and from 0 to ≥0.40, respectively. Correspondingly, five classes from excellent to poor and from high scarcity to no scarcity were proposed to classify the QLT and QNT values, respectively. This approach was then applied to the Gharbia drain in the Nile Delta, Egypt, combined with QUAL2Kw simulations in the summer and winter of 2012. The QLT values along the drain ranged from 1.11 to 2.91 and 0.68 to 1.73 for summer and winter, respectively. Correspondingly, the QLT classes ranged from good to very good and from fair to good, respectively. In regard to QNT, values ranged from 0.10 to 0.62 and from 0.10 to 0.88 for summer and winter, respectively. Correspondingly, the QNT classes ranged from medium scarcity to no scarcity for both seasons. The demonstration of DWRI in the Gharbia drain suggests that the proposed index presents a simple tool for spatially evaluating the suitability of ADW for reuse in irrigation.

Performance analysis of on-farm irrigation tanks on agricultural drainage water reuse and treatment

Water reuse and pollutant removal efficiency analysis of the on-farm irrigation tanks (OFTs) was carried out in rice paddy field region of Zhanghe Irrigation District, Southern China through field experiments during the rice growing season of 2009–2011. Water flow measurements indicate that 20.6–68.9% of drainage water captured by OFTs was reused for supplemental irrigation. Rainfall was the most important factor that determines the water reuse efficiency (WRR) of OFTs, since higher rainfall resulted in higher surplus irrigation water draining out of OFTs without reuse, and thus decreased WRR. Fully using the storage capacity for storing return flow, and releasing totally for supplemental irrigation also enhanced WRR of OFTs. Water quality analysis shows that OFTs removed 47.2% of total phosphorous (TP) and 60.8% of total nitrogen (TN) of inflow and have a great effect on increasing sedimentation for return flow as the mean of removal efficiency of pollutant load (REL) for suspended solids (SS) amounted to 68.4%. For water treatment effectiveness of OFTs, high hydraulic retention time (HRT) is most beneficial to increase REL of TN whereas REL of TP is not sensitive to HRT. These results confirm that OFTs can effectively increase agricultural return flow reuse and remove pollutants. As the cascade OFTs irrigation system recycle return flow for several times, the irrigation water demand from outside of region was reduced significantly for rice production. Coupling with the effect of cyclic irrigation on the nutrients recycling by paddy fields, OFTs irrigation system also considerably mitigate the N and P off-site emission. Therefore, it is advisable to integrate the role of OFTs on water reuse and treatment for water saving irrigation and ecological management of paddy fields landscape.

Mixing waters: The reuse of agricultural drainage water in Egypt

Non-conventional sources of water are becoming increasingly important around the world as pressures mount on limited freshwater supplies. In Egypt, the reuse of agricultural drainage water provides an integral supplement to the water supply. Government pumping stations and farmers’ small diesel pumps lift water up from drainage ditches and direct it back into the irrigation canals for reuse in agriculture, increasing the country’s available water resources by 20%. Given the saline and often polluted nature of drainage water, however, the recycling of this water impacts the quality of water flowing through Egypt’s irrigation network. This paper uses the hydrosocial cycle as a framework to explore how drainage water reuse shapes the quality and quantity of Egypt’s water in space and time, with profound consequences for farmers who rely on that water for their livelihoods. Through close analysis of the case of drainage water reuse, the paper expands on theorizations of the hydrosocial cycle by articulating the relations of power embedded within the cycle. It draws attention, first, to the significance of everyday practice in shaping where the water goes and what it becomes. Second, it highlights the multiple factors that influence people’s control over water. Thus, the paper concludes, we have to look to a variety of human and non-human agencies and relationships to understand how authority is refracted in and through the hydrosocial cycle.

Simulation-Optimization Model for Intermediate Reuse of Agriculture Drainage Water in Egypt

AbstractThe scarcity of water resources in Egypt has triggered the need for using different types of low-quality water. Agricultural drainage water (ADW) is considered as a strategic reserve for coping with increasing fresh water demands. In this paper, an organized and general methodology for determining the optimum reuse discharges is presented. The physical properties of a drainage network are modeled by using a developed simulation water quality model. The genetic algorithm technique is used as an optimization tool for finding the optimum ADW reuse quantities at specific points of withdrawal. The simulation-optimization process was applied twice during the summer and winter seasons. The results show that the reuse quantities represent 75.50 and 87.12% of the available ADW in the study area for summer and winter, respectively, representing 40.57 and 43.52% of seasonal canal delivery. The use of the simulation-optimization model is suitable for decision support leading to near-optimum reuse selection of...

Prospective Speculation for Safe Reuse of Agricultural Drainage Water in Irrigation

Prospective Speculation for Safe Reuse of Agricultural Drainage Water in Irrigation

Development of El-Salam Canal Automation System

In Egypt irrigation water is becoming more scarce with the continuously increasing demand for agriculture, domestic and industrial purposes. To face this increasing irrigation demand, the available water supply in Egypt is supplemented by the reuse of agricultural drainage water as in El-Salam Canal that do not satisfy water quality standards defined for the canal. This paper introduces an automation system for El-Salam Canal to control the flow of the fresh water and drainage water supplied to the canal. This automatic control system (ACS) is able to process data of various flows and water quality data along the canal. This control system is represented by a canal computer model. This system computes the required control actions at the Damietta branch and the feeding drains. It is also able to generate optimum solutions for the canal to satisfy the pre-defined canal conditions and standards.

Detection and mapping of water pollution variation in the Nile Delta using multivariate clustering and GIS techniques

The limited water resources of Egypt lead to widespread water-stress. Consequently, the use of marginal water sources, such as agricultural drainage waters, provides one of the national feasible solutions to the problem. However, the marginal quality of the drainage waters may restrict their use. The objective of this research is to develop a tool for planning and managing the reuse of agricultural drainage water for irrigation in the Nile Delta. This is achieved by classifying the pollution levels of drainage water into several categories using a statistical clustering approach that may ensure simple but accurate information about the pollution levels and water characteristics at any point within the drainage system. The derived clusters are then visualized by using a Geographical Information System (GIS) to draw thematic maps based on the entire Nile Delta, thus making GIS as a decision support system. The obtained maps may assist the decision makers in managing and controlling pollution in the Nile Delta regions. The clustering process also provides an effective overview of those spots in the Nile Delta where intensified monitoring activities are required. Consequently, the obtained results make a major contribution to the assessment and redesign of the Egyptian national water quality monitoring network.