Retrieval-based Learning Research Articles

Testing effect in L2 discourse comprehension: importance of retrieval-based learning

Testing effect in L2 discourse comprehension: importance of retrieval-based learning

Individual features of the temporal dynamics of inhibitory processes in visual short-term memory depending on the content of stimuli and memorization training

Introduction. Age-related changes in cognitive functions are caused by various processes: degrading inhibitory control, decrease in the volume of working memory, or a slowdown in the speed of thought processes. However, there is no unanimous opinion on the dynamics of these processes and their interactions yet. Based on this, our research goal became finding the temporal dynamics and individual relationship of the effects of proactive interference (Retrival-Induced Forgeting (RIF)) and learning to remember (Retrieval-Based Learning (RBL)) depending on the content of the presented stimuli as well as the age-related specifics of memorization when training the short-term visual memory. Materials and methods. Memory training was carried out in a mode independently organized by the study participants using a computerized memorization program in a proactive interference model, including five sessions of visual presentation of stimuli. University students participated in the first part of the study, aimed at clarifying the meaning of the content of two different sets of stimuli, (220 people, 20.4 ± 1.9 years old), whereas second part aimed to determine the age-related characteristics of visual short-term memory training in a group of students, (70 subjects, 21.7±2.5 years) and a group of elderly women (25 subjects, 64.4±6.3 years). Research results. The results of the memory trace retrieval analysis showed that the RIF effect dominates over the RBL effect regardless of the content of the stimuli, but at different rates of its development depending on the set of stimuli used. With significant individual diversity in the combination of memory strategies, the RIF effect dominated at the initial stage of stimulus presentation (67.6% of cases) and gradually replaced by RBL (56.2% in the fifth run of the experiment). Analysis of age-related characteristics of the effectiveness of short-term visual memory training showed that when it is independently organized, maintaining activity is observed in 32% of university students and 50% in the elderly group. Along with this. Only average of ten approaches to complete this task accompanied by a further decrease in the number of training participants. Comparison of the results of the first three training sessions revealed a significant increase in the memory index in both groups compared to the initial value and the presence of a RIF effect with a further more rapid increase in the efficiency of memorization in students. Conclusion. Proactive interference while memorization of visual stimuli repeatedly presented in five sessions, appears regardless of their content, age of the subjects and memorization training. The efficiency of memorization due to training grows faster in the group of students and accompanied by the combination of the RIF and RBL effects that is characterized by individual diversity without a significant effect on the final result of the memory retrieval.

Exploring early syntactic generalisation: evidence from a growth curve analysis of Spanish "se" constructions.

Children's early grammatical constructions, e.g., SVO, exhibit a learning curve with cumulative verb types (CVT) increasing exponentially. According to Ninio (2006), the fact that learning curves, though nonlinear, can be modelled by a continuous regression suggests instant generalisation. Moreover, differences in initial verbs across children indicate minimal involvement of semantics. This study tested these claims on the Spanish "se" constructions (SSCs) in two children, Juan and Lucía (Aguado-Orea & Pine, 2015). Ninio's findings were replicated. Nonetheless, exploratory analyses indicated that curves are driven by the temporal distribution of tokens (instances of the SSC irrespective of verb type) and therefore may reflect non-productivity-related mechanisms, e.g., retrieval-based learning. Furthermore, hapax verbs were relatively late to emerge in the children's data, suggesting emergent generalisation. Analyses of raw lexical frequencies indicated relative semantic homogeneity across the two children's verb types, suggesting a semantic prototype. Nonetheless, ecological factors may also explain these lexical similarities.

Retrieval-based learning versus discussion; which review practice will better enhance primary school students’ knowledge of scientific content?

ABSTRACT Retrieval-based learning, using tests for content review, frequently proves more effective for knowledge retention compared to alternative methods. Extensive research has explored this with older students, often in contrast to more passive techniques like rereading or note rewriting, typically focusing on vocabulary content, in non-classroom settings and assessing knowledge retention within a week. In this study we conducted a classroom experiment to compare the efficacy of retrieval-based learning to another active method of reviewing content, namely discussion, in promoting long-term knowledge retention among primary school science students. Additionally, we assessed the students’ perceptions of these reviewing methods. A total of eighty-one primary school students participated in the study, which encompassed a lesson conducted at a zoo, followed by a review of the lesson content using either retrieval-based learning or discussion. Our findings indicated no impact of the method of reviewing on knowledge retention after either one week or four weeks. Nevertheless, notable effects were observed in terms of motivation, as students who employed retrieval-based learning for reviewing reported heightened levels of interest and enjoyment, along with perceiving greater benefits from the process. Additionally, boys in the discussion group reported increased curiosity, in contrast to girls who reported an inverse pattern.

Language-switching and retrieval-based learning: an unfavorable combination.

Language-switching costs arise when learners encode information in one language and subsequently recall that information in a different language. The assumed cognitive mechanism behind these costs is the principle of encoding specificity that implies language-dependent representations of information. The aim of our study was to test this mechanism and to gain insights into the impact of language-switching on subsequent learning. To this end, we used retrieval-based learning as a carrier-paradigm. In a 2×3-design, 117 participants learned mathematical concepts with a practice-test or a restudy opportunity (within-subjects factor). In addition, the sample was divided into three groups regarding language-switching (between-subjects factor): one group without switching, one switched for the final tests, and one switched between initial learning and subsequent learning. Results show the expected main effects: participants performed better for the items learned via retrieval-based learning (testing-effect) and worse in conditions with language-switching (language-switching-costs). Most importantly, we were able to find an interaction between learning condition and language-switching: retrieval-based learning suffers particularly from language-switching. Additionally, our results indicate that language switching before subsequent learning seems to be particularly detrimental. These results provide both validation for encoding specificity as mechanism underlying language-switching costs and new information on the impact of the time of language-switching that can be considered in educational designs such as "Content and Language Integrated Learning."

Leveraging H3Africa Scholarly Publications for Technology-Enhanced Personalized Bioinformatics Education

The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has catalyzed the expectations for technology-enhanced interactions with personalized educational materials. Adjusting the content of educational materials to the geographical location of a learner is a customization feature of personalized education and is used to develop the interest of a learner in the content. The educational content of interest in this report is bioinformatics, in which the knowledge spans biological science and applied mathematics disciplines. The Human Heredity and Health in Africa (H3Africa) Initiative is a resource suitable for use when obtaining data and peer-reviewed scholarly articles, which are geographically relevant and focus on authentic problem solving in the human health domain. We developed a computerized platform of interactive visual representations of curated bioinformatics datasets from H3Africa projects, which also supports customization, individualization and adaptation features of personalized education. We obtained evidence for the positive effect size and acceptable usability of a visual analytics resource designed for the retrieval-based learning of facts on functional impacts of genomic sequence variants. We conclude that technology-enhanced personalized bioinformatics educational interventions have implications in (1) the meaningful learning of bioinformatics; (2) stimulating additional student interest in bioinformatics; and (2) improving the accessibility of bioinformatics education to non-bioinformaticians.

Combining Retrieval Practice and Generative Learning in Educational Contexts

Abstract. Engaging learners in practicing the retrieval of learned information fosters the consolidation of learners’ mental representations and hence long-term retention. Retrieval practice research has enriched the instructional design literature by providing a wealth of evidence for these benefits of retrieval-based learning and thus emphasizing the value of means to consolidate knowledge. The present article makes the case that a fruitful next step could be to focus on the interplay between retrieval practice and generative activities. Rather than consolidating mental representations, generative activities should have as their main function the construction of coherent mental representations. Hence, from a theoretical perspective, generative activities and retrieval practice should functionally complement each other; hence, combinations of both activities might be particularly suitable to promote lasting learning. Given the challenge to beneficially combine these activities, we discuss open questions that could substantially advance both the retrieval practice and the generative learning field.

Retrieval-based learning and prior knowledge.

Retrieval-based learning and prior knowledge.

Supplemental Material for Retrieval-Based Learning and Prior Knowledge

Supplemental Material for Retrieval-Based Learning and Prior Knowledge

Evidence for reinstating diverse episodic contexts in retrieval-based learning

ABSTRACT The episodic context account suggests that retrieval practice effects depend on reinstating the encoding context during retrieval practice and during subsequent recall attempts. Support for the proposed role of reinstating context has primarily depended on investigations highlighting the salience of temporal context. We examined whether reinstating real and imagined environmental encoding contexts, in addition to temporal context, may underlie retrieval-based learning. In experiments 1-3, participants studied lists of words presented along with environmental scenes or imagined scenes and then, during a second presentation of the words by themselves, either restudied the words or performed a context retrieval task. Free recall of the words was enhanced in all of the context retrieval conditions relative to restudy and the organisation of free recall depended on the type of context retrieved. These findings extend support for the episodic context account by showing that the reinstatement of diverse encoding contexts may underlie retrieval-based learning.

Testing the Effectiveness of Retrieval-Based Learning in Naturalistic School Settings

While the learning benefits of retrieval activities have been clearly demonstrated in laboratory settings, evidence on their usefulness in naturalistic school settings is still scant. The goal of the present studies was to investigate the feasibility and effectiveness of retrieval-based learning in children (fourth and sixth grades) when school teachers themselves design and implement retrieval activities relating to genuine curriculum contents. Three studies were conducted in a public elementary school with fourth and sixth graders and their teachers. Two of the studies involved mathematics and one dealt with social sciences. Teachers used learning activities that required students to recall part of previously taught concepts, while different concepts in the same unit were worked through with those learning activities that were normally used by each teacher. Two out of three studies revealed that, relative to business-as-usual learning activities, performing retrieval activities during classes led to better performance in the assessments at the end of the lessons. Overall, our finding provides preliminary evidence that retrieval activities can enhance learning in elementary school children when they are devised by teachers in the exercise of their professional duties. These results have important practical implications and suggest that, if teachers are aware of the value of retrieval activities in fostering meaningful learning, these activities could be successfully embedded in their daily duties even when considering the constraints imposed by school reality.

A mind-wandering account of the testing effect: Does context variation matter?

The learning benefits of retrieval practice have been linked to reduced mind-wandering, but the reasons why testing offers such an attentional advantage have scarcely been explored. Here, we investigate the extent that the inherent change in learning context during retrieval practice (i.e., interleaved study and retrieval) attenuates mind-wandering, relative to restudy (i.e., massed study). Learners (N = 120) either restudied video lectures (SSSS) or engaged in a combination of study and retrieval (SRSR). Further, they used either the same study mode - the video lecture (S) or its corresponding transcript (S') only (i.e., SSSS or S'S'S'S'; SRSR or S'RS'R), or different study modes - alternated between the video and its transcript (i.e., SS'SS' or S'SS'S; SRS'R or S'RSR). Learners' mind-wandering tendencies were captured using a direct-probing approach, and a free-recall test was administered 1 week later. Retrieval practice produced less mind-wandering than restudy, and this attentional difference mediated the recall advantage of retrieval practice. Of note, in the restudy condition, alternating between study modes inoculated against mind-wandering relative to using the same mode, but only for as long as the study mode remained "new" to learners - when they returned to a previously encountered "old" study mode, mind-wandering surged. In contrast, retrieval practice consistently sustained learners' attention over time, whether or not their study modes were the same or different. Theoretical implications for an attentional account of retrieval-based learning are discussed.

The Effect of ‘box-and-bead’ Analogy versus Retrieval-based Learning on Retention in Chemical Kinetics among First-Year Chemistry Students

The study examined the effects of the box-and-bead analogy versus retrieval-based learning on students’ retention and performance in chemical kinetics among first-year chemistry students. A purposive sampling technique was used to sample participants from the accessible population. The sample was made of two hundred and forty-five (n = 245) first-year chemistry students, at a public university, in South Africa. The study adopted a sequential explanatory research design. A chemical kinetics retention test (CKRT) was used for data collection as pre-, post-test and delayed post-test. A reliability coefficient of 0.73 was established using the Kuderson and Richardson correlation moment coefficient. Participants in the two groups were taught using an advanced retrieval instruction approach and the box-and-bead analogy. The results of the study showed no statistical difference in the retention of procedural knowledge and a statistical difference in conceptual knowledge. Overall, students taught using advanced retrieval performed better than the other group. The study underlines the fact that analogy-based instruction can be effective in improving conceptual knowledge using concrete analogues that aid in the retention of chemical kinetics. The findings of this study are diagnostic and they assist module designers in determining the procedural and conceptual knowledge in chemical kinetics retained by students, even after years have passed.

Age characteristics of the working memory

This paper raises the question of the relationship between two mechanisms of working memory - Retrieval-Induced Forgetting (RIF) and Retrieval-Based Learning (RBL) in ontogenesis. Working memory is an element of executive functions, the effectiveness of which predetermines the success of learning, which determines the importance of studying the mechanisms of its implementation. RIF is a deterioration in the reproduction of subsequent stimuli as a result of reproduction of previous stimuli that are similar in some parameter. RBL is the reverse process, in which each subsequent reproduction in the working memory leads to better memorization of information when the memory is repeatedly tested. Comparison of works representing specific ages of the subjects does not allow us to imagine the complete change in the interaction of the two mechanisms with age. This is what became the task of this study. An original computerized technique was used (Razumnikova et al., 2016) which had been designed to memorize visual objects presented on a computer screen. The technique included three series, during which the same set of simple objects were presented, but the order of the presentation varied from series to series. The study involved 201 children: 17 children who were 3-4 years old, 90 children who were 5-7 years old, 47 children 10-11 who were years old and 47 children who were 12-14 years old. It is shown that RIF processes are mostly formed in children 3-4 years old. The effectiveness of RBL increases with age and reaches its greatest values by adolescence.

Specificity of working memory mechanisms in individuals

The research analyzes the capacity of working memory and the mechanisms which determine effectiveness of retrieval in people with long-lasting (from 5 to 20 years) drug use history. The relevance of the research is supported by the fact that the working memory is considered to be a central mechanism of self-control, which, in turn, is considered a leading parameter when an indi-vidual chooses the path to addiction. The research studied 258 people, 151 of whom, 37.1±10.7 years old, have never used substances, and the group of 107, 35.8±7.8 years old, who have long-lasting (from 5 to 20 years) drug use history. The working memory specifics were evaluated by O.Razumnikova’s technique, which allows retrieval of the same set of stimuli presented in different consequence and in three series to be described. The research studied the most discussed mechanisms functioning in the working memory separately: retrieval-induced forgetting and retrieval-based learning. Our data suggest that the structure of the working memory mechanisms does not change along with long-lasting substance use while in case of the RBL effect the difference is threefold: in case of repeated retrieval, the addicts demon-strate insignificant improvement of memorization ability in comparison to the drug-free controls.

Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning.

How do we go about learning new information? This article reviews the importance of practicing retrieval of newly experienced information if one wants to be able to retrieve it again in the future. Specifically, practicing retrieval shortly after learning can slow the forgetting process. This benefit can be seen across various material types, and it seems prevalent in all ages and learner abilities and on all types of test. It can also be used to enhance student learning in a classroom setting. I review theoretical understanding of this phenomenon (sometimes referred to as the testing effect or as retrieval-based learning) and consider directions for future research.

Wright State University Boonshoft School of Medicine.

Wright State University Boonshoft School of Medicine.

Reversing the testing effect by feedback is a matter of performance criterion at practice

Retrieval practice is generally considered to be one of the most effective long-term learning strategies and is presumed to be more favorable than repeated study. However, a few recent studies have demonstrated that repetitive feedback at final recall can reverse the long-term advantage of testing over restudy. The result that feedback at long-term tests can dramatically decrease the relative effectiveness of retrieval-based learning could be important for both theoretical and practical reasons. Considering that these earlier studies administered low retrieval success at retrieval practice, we investigated whether the effect of feedback on the testing effect is modulated by the level of retrieval success during practice. In three experiments the level of success at retrieval practice was manipulated by multiple pre-practice learning trials, and multiple tests with feedback were applied after a 1-week retention interval at final recall. Our results have demonstrated that a feedback-induced reversed testing effect was present only at low retrieval success during practice (Experiment 1), whereas with moderate (Experiment 2) and high retrieval success (Experiment 3) during practice a significant testing effect emerged and no reversed testing effect was found even after repeated cycles of feedback. These results point to the conclusion that the level of retrieval success was the key factor in reversing the testing effect in earlier studies. Application of high retrieval success during practice can produce long-lasting accessible memories even in learning settings applying multiple tests with feedback.

Choosing Appropriate Retrieval based Learning Elements among Students in Java Programming Course

Effective learning needs consistent and relevant strategies to help students process and maintain new information. This importance is influenced by researchers’ objectives to help students who are able to retain memory in learning, and manage to master learning well. Encoding, learning condition and learning practice are the important elements in Retrieval Based Learning (RBL) strategies. This research aims to decide suitable RBL strategies for students who join Java Programming course at vocational institutions. Research sample consists of 72 DVM students in their first semester for the Data and Web Application Database Management course in four different vocational institutions. Research data were obtained using questionnaire and analysed using the Statistical Package of the Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 22.0. The questionnaire was divided into four sections, encoding, learning condition, retrieval practice and suitable materials to be used in learning. Results from the descriptive analysis showed that the use of encoding through acoustic, visual semantic and elaborative methods has become students’ choices in program learning, while the appropriate learning condition by students with the highest mean value of 4.0694 is through repetitive practices or individual tests to improve memory in learning. The three retrieval practices which are free recall, serial recall and cue recall, receive the highest interpretation other than using hardcopy materials and computer application in learning. Students’ learning approaches were different depending on suitability and comfort. Thus, educators should realize this and the effort of adapting learning between students’ choices and Java Programming course which could create an effective learning environment for all students. The results of the study are hoped to provide important knowledge in improving program learning, generally, and at vocational institutions, specifically, for computer programming courses.

Episodic context reinstatement promotes memory retention in older but not younger elementary schoolchildren.

Previous studies have shown that reinstatement of spatial and temporal background information during learning can promote memory retention in adults. However, the effect in children is unclear. In order to explore the effect of episodic context reinstatement on the memory retention of different age groups, first-grade students, third-grade students, and third-year college students studied two word lists. When the words were presented mixed together, the participants were told to either restudy the words under intentional learning conditions or make list discrimination judgements by indicating the list from which each word had originated. Results revealed that the retrieval practice based on the episodic context reinstatement paradigm showed a phased development trend in the participants compared to restudy. Episodic context reinstatement only promoted memory retention in the third-grade children and college students, but not in the first-grade children. During the early elementary school years, children do not have relatively mature episodic memory ability and cannot output memories according to context clues. Our finding suggests important guidance for the age-appropriate use of tests as instructional tools in basic education. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? One recent theory of retrieval-based learning is the episodic context account; it promotes memory retention by reinstate the context of a prior learning episode. Previous studies have confirmed in the adults that the episodic context reinstatement was the main reason for retrieval practice to promote memory retention through the list discrimination tasks What does this study add? This study revealed that the retrieval practice based on the episodic context reinstatement paradigm showed a phased development trend in the participants. Episodic context reinstatement only promoted memory retention in the third-grade children and college students, but not in the first-grade children, and the results support the episodic context assumption, namely that episodic context reinstatement is the key factor in memory retention. The results of this study can explain why most prior work has observed the effect of retrieval practice in the groups above grade three.