Retention Test Research Articles

Reliability of online visual and proprioceptive feedback: impact on learning and sensorimotor coding.

Multisensory integration is essential for learning and sensorimotor coding, facilitating learners' adaptation to environmental changes. Recent findings confirm that introducing unreliability into visual feedback enhances the use of motor coding, probably because proprioceptive cues are given greater weight. The present study was designed to test this hypothesis and, more generally, to explore the impact of visual versus proprioceptive cue reliability on learning processes. Participants performed a 12-target pointing sequence 100 times with different combinations of visual and proprioceptive feedback: reliable versus unreliable. Retention tests and intermanual transfer tests were administered 24h later. Results showed that learning and sensorimotor coding were both affected by the different combinations of visual and proprioceptive cue reliability. Fully reliable feedback allowed for the best retention, while fully unreliable feedback resulted in the worst retention. Visual reliability alone mediated the level of visuospatial coding performance in visuospatial transfer, regardless of the level of proprioceptive reliability, and conversely, reliable proprioception combined with unreliable vision provided the optimum sensory environment for motor coding in the motor transfer test. Overall, our study highlighted the essential role of both visual cue reliability and proprioceptive cue reliability -and their interactions- in motor learning and its generalization.

Technological Interface Components That Support Accelerated Learning in the Acquisition of Foreign Language Vocabulary

There is a need to find innovative learning methods that enable accelerated learning of a foreign language. This study examined the effect of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in acquiring a foreign language, which combines cognitive and emotional stimuli in the background. The study explored two factors related to the acquisition of a foreign language: the duration and scope of the learning process and the depth of internalization of the newly acquired language. Another objective was to assess the learning method in two learning environments, 2D and VR, to determine if the learning environment affects the learning results and leads to better vocabulary retention. One hundred native French speakers, with an average age of 47.5, participated in the study and had no prior knowledge of the newly acquired language. We randomly divided the participants into two groups (2D and VR). They studied 550 words in a new language for five days: 30 min each evening and 15 min in the morning. The post-learning test pointed out that both groups improved their vocabulary scores significantly. Approximately one month after the learning experience, we administered a knowledge retention test to 32 participants and found that the level of knowledge had been retained. Finally, background variables (e.g., gender, age, and previous knowledge of the newly acquired language) did not affect the learning results. The findings indicate that CALL, which integrates background cognitive and emotional stimuli in both learning environments, significantly accelerates learning pace, broadens the scope of newly acquired words, and ensures retention. The level of improvement observed in our study is notably higher than that reported in the literature for studies that had previously evaluated CALL and in-class language acquisition.

Utilizing Video Feedback for Effective Motor Skill Learning in Online Physical Education

ABSTRACT Video feedback is a commonly recommended tool for online physical education (OLPE) instructors. However, there is little evidence to support its effectiveness in motor skill learning. This study investigated the impact of different forms of pedagogical guidance delivered alongside video feedback on the acquisition and retention of two-disc golf skills: the spin putt (SP) and backhand throw (BT). Forty-three college students were randomly assigned to one of the three video feedback groups: visual cue sheet (VCS), self-assessment (SA), or delayed teacher feedback (TF). During four online practice sessions, they trained on the spin putt and backhand throw techniques. Pre-, post-, and retention tests assessed their performance on both skills. The results indicate significant improvements in BT technique at posttest for both SA and VCS groups. All participants exhibited significant gains in SP technique at posttest; however, only the VCS group sustained these improvements for both disc golf skills at the retention test. No significant differences were observed between the groups for both disc golf skills at all three measurements. These findings suggest that video feedback, particularly when combined with in-the-moment guidance like VCS or SA, can effectively enhance motor skill learning in online settings. This result underscores the potential of OLPE to go beyond fitness-based activities and effectively address psychomotor learning standards. Future research should explore the long-term impact of video feedback in OLPE and identify optimal guidance strategies for diverse motor skills and demographics.

Oculomotor functional connectivity associated with motor sequence learning.

Acquisition of learned motor sequences involves saccades directed toward the goal to gather visual information prior to reaching. While goal-directed actions involve both eye and hand movements, therole of brain areas controlling saccades during motor sequence learning is still unclear. This study aimed to determine whether resting-state functional connectivity of oculomotor regions is associated with behavioral changes resulting from motor sequence learning. We investigated connectivity between oculomotor control regions and candidate regions involved in oculomotor control and motor sequence learning. Twenty adults had brain scans before 3 days of motor task practice and after a 24-hour retention test, which was used to assess sequence-specific learning. During testing, both saccades and reaches were tracked. Stronger connectivity in multiple oculomotor regions prior to motor task practice correlated with greater sequence-specific learning for both saccades and reaches. A more negative connectivity change involving oculomotor regions from pre- to post-training correlated with greater sequence-specific learning for both saccades and reaches. Overall, oculomotor functional connectivity was associated with themagnitude of behavioral change resulting from motor sequence learning, providing insight into thefunction of the oculomotor system during motor sequence learning.

ICG-r15 predicts esophageal varices in compensated liver cirrhosis: a noninvasive approach

ObjectiveThe aim of our study was to evaluate the indocyanine green (ICG) retention test as a noninvasive marker of esophageal varices(EV).MethodsThe clinical data of patients diagnosed with compensated liver cirrhosis in Tianjin Second People’s Hospital between January 2018 and January 2021 were analysed with SPSS 23.0.ResultA total of 144 patients (88 M/56 F, 51.7 ± 11.06 years) were enrolled. The ICG retention at 15 min(ICG-r15), PVD, TBIL, Cholinesterase(CHE), AST to ALT ratio(ARR), APRI, splenic area, Lok index, Park index and liver stiffness measurement in the absent or small EV group were lower than those in the medium or large EV group, while the ICG disappareance rate(ICG-K), Effective hepatic blood flow(EHBF), ALB, PLT, and Platelet to Spleen Diameter Ratio(PSDR) were higher, and the differences were significant (P < 0.05). ICG-r15, splenic area, APRI and PLT were independent predictors for medium or large esophageal varices (OR = 1.115, 1.025, 0.281, and 0.987, respectively,P < 0.05). The predictive value of ICG-r15 for medium or large varices was 17.95%, the specificity was 0.849, and the sensitivity was 0.662, the AUROC was 0.815. The cut-off value of PLT for M/L EV was 113.5, and the specificity and sensitivity were 0.616 and 0.887, the AUROC was 0.759. The AUROC of ICG-r15 combined with PLT was 0.866, which was more superior than others.ConclusionAlthough we are far from the replacement of endoscopy, ICG-r15 combined with PLT seems to be able to identify patients with medium or large EV in patients with compensated liver cirrhosis.

Spatially resolved CFD-DEM model with innovative experimental validation methods to improve understanding of sand retention in oil and gas wells with the consideration of filter-beds on standalone screens

Coupling CFD and DEM is commonly used to study particle-fluid flow in sand retention systems for oil and gas wells, addressing the limitations of laboratory experiments and reliance on empirical data. These numerical studies aid in optimising standalone sand screens, which are favoured over gravel-pack completions for cost-effectiveness. However, such studies overlook the critical role of the bulk filter-bed in retaining permeability for both particulate and fluid phases. This paper presents a robust numerical methodology using resolved CFD-DEM to model a sand retention system that accurately captures filter-bed permeability, which has a greater impact on sand production and retained fluid productivity than the screen itself from a long-term perspective. The numerical model's accuracy is validated through a novel experimental methodology, which involves benchmarking the numerically derived porosity and single-phase permeability against micro-CT imaging of the filter-bed. Results show strong consistency between the numerical model and micro-CT imaging of the laboratory-derived filter-bed. This validated model provides a solid foundation for running more accurate sand retention tests and improving standalone sand screen selection criteria. Future work will explore the effects of varying parameters on the filter-bed formation to determine optimal conditions for maximising sand retention while maintaining hydrocarbon productivity from a long-term perspective.

Reinforcement learning in motor skill acquisition: using the reward positivity to understand the mechanisms underlying short- and long-term behavior adaptation.

According to reinforcement learning, humans adjust their behavior based on the difference between actual and anticipated outcomes (i.e., prediction error) with the main goal of maximizing rewards through their actions. Despite offering a strong theoretical framework to understand how we acquire motor skills, very few studies have investigated reinforcement learning predictions and its underlying mechanisms in motor skill acquisition. In the present study, we explored a 134-person dataset consisting of learners' feedback-evoked brain activity (reward positivity; RewP) and motor accuracy during the practice phase and delayed retention test to investigate whether these variables interacted according to reinforcement learning predictions. Results showed a non-linear relationship between RewP and trial accuracy, which was moderated by the learners' performance level. Specifically, high-performing learners were more sensitive to violations in reward expectations compared to low-performing learners, likely because they developed a stronger representation of the skill and were able to rely on more stable outcome predictions. Furthermore, contrary to our prediction, the average RewP during acquisition did not predict performance on the delayed retention test. Together, these findings support the use of reinforcement learning models to understand short-term behavior adaptation and highlight the complexity of the motor skill consolidation process, which would benefit from a multi-mechanistic approach to further our understanding of this phenomenon.

Short-Term Effect of Attributional Versus Non-Attributional Negative Normative Feedback on Motor Tasks: A Double-Blind Study

Augmented feedback can alter motor performance. We examined if presenting attributional versus non-attributional negative normative feedback differently impacted short-term motor performance. With a double-blind experimental design, 49 students (36.7% female, Mage = 17.14 and SD = ±0.35) were assigned to the following two groups: G1: Attributional Negative Normative Feedback group (n = 24) and G2: Non-Attributional Negative Normative Feedback group (n = 25), with the dependent variable being the score obtained on a dart-throwing test. The results showed that those participants who received negative social comparative feedback presented in an attributional way (internal, controllable, and unstable) obtained higher scores in the dart throwing task than those who received negative social comparative feedback presented in a non-attributional way. Furthermore, these differences were maintained in the retention and transfer tests conducted 24 h after the practice phase. These findings have practical implications in motor behavior learning and performance.

Motor sequence-specific learning-induced corticospinal plasticity is biased towards sensorimotor mu rhythm peak phases.

Motor cortical (M1) transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) interventions increase corticospinal output and improve motor learning when delivered during sensorimotor mu rhythm trough but not peak phases, suggesting that the mechanisms supporting motor learning may be most active during mu trough phases. Based on these findings, we predicted that motor sequence learning-related corticospinal plasticity would be most evident when measured during mu trough phases. Healthy adults were assigned to either a sequence or random group. Participants in the sequence group practiced the implicit serial reaction time task (SRTT), which contained an embedded, repeating 12-item sequence. Participants in the random group practiced a version of the SRTT that contained no sequence. We measured mu phase-independent and mu phase-dependent MEP amplitudes using EEG-informed single-pulse TMS before, immediately, and 30 minutes after the SRTT in both groups. All participants performed a retention test one hour after SRTT acquisition. In both groups, mu phase-independent MEP amplitudes increased following SRTT acquisition, but the pattern of mu phase-dependent MEP amplitude increases after SRTT acquisition differed between groups. Relative to the random group, the sequence group showed greater increases in peak-specific corticospinal output 30 minutes after SRTT acquisition. Contrary to our original hypothesis, results revealed that motor sequence learning recruits peak-rather than trough-specific neurophysiological mechanisms. These findings suggest that mu peak phases may provide protected time windows for motor memory consolidation and demonstrate the presence of a mu phase-dependent motor learning mechanism in the human brain.

The effect of explicit, implicit and analogy instruction on decision-making skill for novices under stress

ABSTRACT The present study is an attempt to evaluate directly the effect of explicit, implicit and analogy instruction on decision-making skills among novices under stress conditions. 60 young novices, aged 10–11, were randomly selected and assigned to three experimental groups and a control group. A field and a laboratory test were conducted to evaluate decision-making on the volleyball serve skill (decide and move). Once the four groups completed the pre-test, the three experimental groups participated in the intervention programme consisting of 12 training units (4 weeks × 3 times per week). A post-test, a retention test, and a stress test were also applied to all groups. All experimental groups improved and retained decision-making scores in both the laboratory and the field tests. Comparing the groups showed that the analogy learning group achieved a higher score than the implicit, explicit, and control groups in the post-test and retention test. Analogy and implicit learners appear to be unaffected by stress conditions, while the opposite is true of the explicit learners’ performance, which decreased in both the laboratory and the field tests. Ιt seems that if taught by analogy-based instructions, novices may perform better at both decision-making and motor skills, which indicates that they are under less cognitive demand, even under stress conditions.

Embedded Resistance as a Technique to Monitor Concrete Curing.

The use of membrane-forming curing compounds on fresh concrete has been widely adopted by many States' Departments of Transportation as it is feasible where there is a deficiency of water, on sloping surfaces where curing with water is challenging, and in cases where large areas like pavement have to be cured. However, the evaluation of the curing compound application effectiveness is difficult because most of the evaluation test methods are not performed during the early age of the concrete. Moreover, the ASTM C156 standards test of water retention for the qualification of curing compounds has met criticism as the moisture retention is performed only on the mortar specimens, with a fixed application rate and curing condition. Therefore, in this study, the embedded resistance technique was used as a test replacement for the moisture retention test to assess concrete curing. The findings from this study showed that a correlation can be found between the moisture retention test and the embedded resistance test. Based on the findings, the embedded resistance test could be a suitable replacement for the moisture loss test, because the test is much simpler and quicker to be performed both in the lab and in the field.

Cognitive dual-task does not annihilate the negative effects of gender stereotype threat on girls' motor learning

Stereotype threat, a key concept in social psychology, occurs when individuals fear they may confirm negative stereotypes about their social group (Steele, 1997). This phenomenon can significantly impair motor learning, particularly in children. Given the robust nature of stereotype threat, research it is now focused on mitigating these negative effects. According to the explicit monitoring hypothesis, it is suggested that distracting individual’s attention can lead to an annihilation of stereotype threat effects, however, to date, this hypothesis has not been examined in children. The present study examined the effect of stereotype threat in a dual task condition on children’s motor learning. One hundred and fifty girls (mean age = 10.96 ± .80 years) were randomly assigned into 3 groups; 1- explicit gender stereotype threat; 2- explicit gender stereotype threat + dual task; 3- control. The task consisted of a soccer-kicking task in which the participants had to score the most points by kicking the soccer ball towards the goals on the wall. This study included three phases; 1- pretest (10 trials); 2- practice phase (5 blocks of 10 trials); 3- retention test (10 trials). During the practice phase, the results indicated that participants in the control condition performed better (M = 1.46, SD = .19) than participants in the gender stereotype threat condition (M = 1.25, SD = .16, p < .001), and, than participants in the gender stereotype threat + dual task paradigm condition (M = .92, SD = .19, p < .001). However, participants in the gender stereotypes + dual task paradigm condition performed worse than participants in the gender stereotype threat condition (p < .001). In addition, the results of the retention test showed that participants in the control condition performed better (M = 1.51, SD = .34) than participants in the gender stereotype threat condition (M = 1.24, SD = .35, p = .001), and participants in the gender stereotype threat + dual task paradigm condition (M = 1.15, SD = .49, p < .001). In conclusion, these results do not support the potential neutralizing effect of a cognitive dual task in a stereotype threat condition in children.

Leveraging Tunability of Localized-Interfacial Memristors for Efficient Handling of Complex Neural Networks.

A scalable (<130 nm) resistive switching memristor that features both filamentary and interfacial switching aimed at neuromorphic computing is developed in this study. The typically perceived noise or volatility was effectively harnessed as a controlled mechanism for interfacial switching. The multilayer structure for the proposed memristor enhances switching stability by curbing ionic overmigration and mitigating leakage paths. Furthermore, the memristors showcased their reliability by demonstrating more than 15 M cycles in the filamentary mode and 1 M pulses in the interfacial mode. Additionally, retention tests at 85 °C for 104 s confirmed the stability across different states, affirming its reliability as a nonvolatile CMOS-compatible element. While many studies validate performance solely on the MNIST data set, this work also evaluates more complex data sets, demonstrating the robustness of the demonstrated memristor in supervised learning. Specifically, supervised learning simulations on MNIST and fashion MNIST data sets indicated a high learning rate with <4% deviations from numerical training, while offline inference trained on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 data sets revealed <2.5% and <7% deviations caused by programing error accumulation, even with increased memristor counts for these highly complex data sets. Unsupervised learning via spike-timing-dependent plasticity further highlights the potential of the developed memristor in bridging artificial and biological paradigms, offering a significant advance toward efficient and biologically inspired computing architectures.

Clinical features of vascular cognitive impairment

Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) can occur in cerebrovascular disease of varying degree of severity, which requires further investigation.Objective: to identify specific features of attention deficit and executive function (EF) impairment in VCI and to determine the relationship between cognitive, neurological and radiological signs of the disease.Material and methods. The study involved 80 patients (51 with VCI – the main group and 29 healthy volunteers – the control group). All participants underwent clinical and neuropsychological examination and MRI of the brain. VCI was diagnosed according to 2014 VASCOG criteria. The neuropsychological examination included an assessment of the general cognitive function (MoCA test, MMSE); general EF (FAB, EXIT-25); episodic memory (12-word memory test and Benton Visual Retention Test); semantic memory (categorical association method); initiation and productivity of cognitive activity (literal associations); attention [TMT-A, Symbol-Digit Modalities Test (SDMT)]; cognitive flexibility (TMT-B); cognitive control (Stroop test).Results. As a result of the study, three subgroups of patients with VCI were identified: 1) predominantly attention deficit (AD); 2) AD and significant decrease in cognitive flexibility (CFD); 3) AD in combination with a significant cognitive control deficiency (CCD). The TMT-A and SDMT tests were significantly worse in all subgroups of VCI compared to the control group, with the worst SDMT score in subgroup 2. Subgroup 2 also had the longest time to complete the TMT-B test. Subgroup 3 was characterized by the worst Stroop test results, and uncontrolled arterial hypertension was more common in this group. Gait disturbances were significantly more frequent in subgroup 2, and increased reflexes of oral automatism and grasp reflex were observed in subgroup 3. White matter hyperintensity (WMH) was more pronounced in subgroup 2, and lacunar infarcts (LI) were more frequent in subgroup 3. Prevalence of LI and severity of WMH were lowest in subgroup 1.Conclusion. The main features of VCI are attention deficit and EF impairment, characteristics of EF disorders depend on the severity and type of vascular lesions of the brain. Progression of WMH is associated with more pronounced CFD and an increase in the number of LI is associated with CCD. There is a correlation between CFD and gait disturbances and between CCD and lack of primitive reflexes inhibition.

Conceptual and Applied Aspects of Water Retention Tests on Tailings Using Columns

The water retention capacity of porous materials is crucial in various geotechnical and environmental engineering applications such as slope stability analysis, landfill management, and mining operations. Filtered tailings stacks are considered an alternative to traditional tailings dams. Nevertheless, the mechanical behaviour and stability of the material under different water content conditions are of concern because these stacks can reach considerable heights. The water behaviour in these structures is poorly understood, particularly the effects of the water content on the stability and potential for liquefaction of the stacks. This study aims to investigate the water retention and flow characteristics of compacted iron ore tailings in high columns to better understand their hydromechanical behaviour. The research used 5 m high columns filled with iron ore tailings from the Quadrilátero Ferrífero region in Minas Gerais, Brazil. The columns were prepared in layers, compacted, and instrumented with moisture content sensors and suction sensors to monitor the water movement during various stages of saturation, drainage, infiltration, and evaporation. The sensors provided consistent data and revealed that the tailings exhibited high drainage capacity. The moisture content and suction profiles were effectively established over time and revealed the dynamic water retention behaviour. The comparison of the data with the theoretical soil water retention curve (SWRC) demonstrated a good correlation which indicates that there was no hysteresis in the material response. The study concludes that the column setup effectively captures the water retention and flow characteristics of compacted tailings and provides valuable insights for the hydromechanical analysis of filtered tailings stacks. These findings can significantly help improve numerical models, calibrate material parameters, and contribute to the safer and more efficient management of tailings storage facilities.

The power of play: gamification in virtual workplace training

ABSTRACT Organizations face growing pressure to upskill their employees and provide effective and engaging training, leading to significant investments in virtual workplace training (VWT). However, the effectiveness of VWT, particularly when incorporating game elements, remains unclear. To address this, this study examined the impact of gamification intensity on perceived autonomy and its effect on training outcomes. Additionally, it explored whether self-efficacy played a moderating role in these relationships. Using a between-subjects design, we manipulated gamification intensity (low, medium and high levels) and asked 355 employees to complete a VWT and a retention test. In contrast to our expectations, gamification intensity negatively affected perceived autonomy. Furthermore, perceived autonomy had a positive impact only on affective but not on performance-related training outcomes. Also, we found no evidence of the mediating role of perceived autonomy or the moderating role of self-efficacy in these relationships. Regarding the retention test, gamification intensity negatively affected perceived autonomy and both affective and performance-related training outcomes. Our findings challenge the belief that gamification intensity enhances satisfaction and training success and underscore the importance of autonomy in VWT. We discuss how our findings can guide researchers and practitioners to promote sustainable training success in organizations.

Impact of Digital Game-based Learning Experiences on Reasoning Skills and Science Engagement

This research seeks to use games to promote scientific reasoning and inquiry skills among middle-school children. Particularly, it focuses on the Control of Variables Strategy (CVS), a fundamental component of scientific thinking which enables individuals to test hypotheses and make valid causal inferences based on evidence. The present study draws on and combines existing streams of research in the fields of science education, embodied cognition, and game-based learning to investigate the efficacy of an intervention using the Preparation for Future Learning paradigm in which students play an online text-based adventure simulation game about solving escape rooms in order to prime them for later formal instruction in CVS via a randomized-controlled trial, as well as whether structured or unstructured access to the game has a differential impact on immediate learning vs. retention after a delay. Students were given tests of scientific reasoning at baseline, immediately following the training phase, and a week thereafter. The impact of playing this game on motivation and engagement with science is also analyzed in this trial through the use of survey data. The study found significant effects of study condition on all measures, with students assigned to the game groups outperforming control students, and the unstructured play group showing the strongest performance in the post-study test while the structured play group performed the most poorly in the retention test. The unstructured play group also showed the highest level of intrinsic motivation, as well as higher self-determination and self-efficacy than the structured playing group in the science engagement survey.

Determining the optimal challenge point for learning motor skills in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder

The purpose of this study was to investigate the optimal challenge point for learning motor skills in children with and without attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Ninety-six 9- to 10-year-old children, including 48 children with ADHD and 48 neurotypical children, were randomly assigned to one of four practice groups with varying levels of nominal and functional task difficulty. They performed 63 trials of a dart throwing task in the acquisition phase and 18 trials in the retention and transfer tests a day later. The results showed that neurotypical children outperformed children with ADHD in all phases of the study. Both groups improved in the acquisition phase and performed better in the retention and transfer tests. Interestingly, low nominal task difficulty was associated with better learning for both groups, despite lower average performance for children with ADHD. Thus, despite their performance differences, we did not find a difference in the effective challenge point between children with ADHD and their neurotypical peers.

The Effect of Modelling Instruction on the Interest and Achievement of Lower Basic 5 Special Needs Pupils in Special Needs Schools in Abia State, Nigeria

The study investigated the effect of modelling instruction on the interest and achievement of lower basic 5 special needs pupils in special needs schools in Abia state, Nigeria. The study employed a quasi-experimental design with pretest, posttest non randomised control group using 2x2 factorial matrix, and gender as moderating variable. Two intact class of lower basic 5 special needs pupils were used for the study and were assigned as experimental and control groups. The experimental group consisted of 12 pupils’ and control group 15 pupils. Data were collected using a 34-item multiple choice Home Economics Achievement Test (HEAT). The questionnaire contained 10 Likert-type questions on interest scale. The instrument was subjected to face and content validation. Face and content validation were carried out by three experts. The internal consistency aspect of the reliability of the instrument was determined using Kuder Richardson (K-R20) formula which yielded an index of 0.81 indicating that the instrument was highly reliable. The experiment which lasted for six weeks was carried out with the assistance of the regular Home Economies teachers in the sampled schools. The HEAT was used to collect data for the Pre-Test, and Post-test and the retention tests. The data collected from the pupils were analyzed using mean and standard deviation to answer the three research questions that guided the study, while the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the three null-hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The results among others showed that pupils’ Modelling teaching strategy has had an increasing and significant mean score difference on interest scores and achievement scores of primary five special needs pupils’ when taught Home Economics using Modelling teaching strategy and those taught using lecture method. Furthermore, gender has no significant effect on primary five special needs pupils’ taught Home Economics using modelling teaching strategy and those taught using lecture method. It is recommended that Government and relevant professional bodies should pay more attention to special needs schools by providing the needed instructional materials for better instructional delivery.

The Effect of Contextual Interference on the Acquisition and Learning of Motor Skill with an Emphasis on Cognitive Flexibility

Background: The effect of contextual interference (CI) on motor skill learning may be influenced by various factors, such as cognitive abilities. Objectives: The purpose of the current research was to investigate the effect of CI on the acquisition and learning of soccer skills, with an emphasis on the role of cognitive flexibility (CF). Methods: Eighty students, aged 9 - 12 years, were randomly selected and administered the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. From this group, 60 students who scored the highest and lowest points were selected as the final subjects. After completing the pre-test on Moore-Christine's pass, shoot, and dribble skills, the subjects were divided into four groups of 15 participants each (high CF with Random Practice (RP) and Blocked Practice (BP), low CF with RP and BP). The subjects then engaged in practice sessions according to their assigned protocols for three sessions, with each session consisting of three blocks of 12 trials across all three skills—passing, shooting, and dribbling. Following the practice, acquisition, immediate retention, delayed retention, and transfer tests were conducted. Results: The results showed that practice in all four groups had significant beneficial effects on the acquisition and learning of skills. Additionally, the high CF with RP group demonstrated better performance in all skills compared to the other groups. Conclusions: Therefore, it can be concluded that RP may be more beneficial for individuals with higher CF. Teachers and educators should consider this when teaching sports skills.