Grade Retention Research Articles

Cannabis Use During Adolescence and Young Adulthood and Academic Achievement

Cannabis use during adolescence and young adulthood may affect academic achievement; however, the magnitude of association remains unclear. To conduct a systematic review evaluating the association between cannabis use and academic performance. CINAHL, EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsycInfo, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science from inception to November 10, 2023. Observational studies examining the association of cannabis use with academic outcomes were selected. The literature search identified 17 622 unique citations. Pairs of reviewers independently assessed risk of bias and extracted data. Both random-effects models and fixed-effects models were used for meta-analyses, and the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach was applied to evaluate the certainty of evidence for each outcome. Data were analyzed from April 6 to May 25, 2024. School grades, school dropout, school absenteeism, grade retention, high school completion, university enrollment, postsecondary degree attainment, and unemployment. Sixty-three studies including 438 329 individuals proved eligible for analysis. Moderate-certainty evidence showed cannabis use during adolescence and young adulthood was probably associated with lower school grades (odds ratio [OR], 0.61 [95% CI, 0.52-0.71] for grade B and above); less likelihood of high school completion (OR, 0.50 [95% CI, 0.33-0.76]), university enrollment (OR, 0.72 [95% CI, 0.60-0.87]), and postsecondary degree attainment (OR, 0.69 [95% CI, 0.62-0.77]); and increased school dropout rate (OR, 2.19 [95% CI, 1.73-2.78]) and school absenteeism (OR, 2.31 [95% CI, 1.76-3.03]). Absolute risk effects ranged from 7% to 14%. Low-certainty evidence suggested that cannabis use may be associated with increased unemployment (OR, 1.50 [95% CI, 1.15-1.96]), with an absolute risk increase of 9%. Subgroup analyses with moderate credibility showed worse academic outcomes for frequent cannabis users and for students who began cannabis use earlier. Cannabis use during adolescence and young adulthood was probably associated with increases in school absenteeism and dropout; reduced likelihood of obtaining high academic grades, graduating high school, enrolling in university, and postsecondary degree attainment; and perhaps increased unemployment. Further research is needed to identify interventions and policies that mitigate upstream and downstream factors associated with early cannabis exposure.

Cultural capital, black holes, and the hidden curriculum: an analysis of grade repetition in Spain

ABSTRACT In this article I explain the contradiction between the averagely high and equitable scores that Spanish students obtained in the last three editions (2015, 2018, and 2022) of the Program for International Student Assessment, and Spain’s extremely high and unequitable rate of grade repetition in schools. After ruling out alternative explanations for this discrepancy, I explore the hypothesis that grade repetition in Spain is an effect of the hidden curriculum. Methodologically speaking, my explanation establishes analogies with Einstein’s theory of relativity and draws on its spatial topoi to conceptualize the difference between the official and the hidden curriculum and the undemocratic conflation between upper- and middle-class cultural capital and academic skills. This conflation, I argue, lies behind said contradiction between Spanish students’ scores in PISA and the rates of grade repetition in Spain.

Perinatal risk factors and neurocognitive outcomes in children and adolescents with sickle cell disease.

The literature on cognitive and academic outcomes for children with sickle cell disease (SCD) who experience perinatal risk factors is limited. We aimed to evaluate if low birthweight (LBW), gestational age, and history of neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) admission were associated with neurocognitive functioning, grade retention, or receipt of early intervention or formal educational support in children with SCD. This prospective birth cohort study included 336 participants, ages 8-18, with SCD, who received cognitive testing as part of standard of care and whose caregivers completed behavioral rating scales. Multivariable generalized linear regression models were used to examine associations between perinatal risks and outcome variables, after adjusting for demographic and medical covariates. The prevalence of NICU admission and LBW were 12.03% and 13.50%, respectively. Lower birthweight, earlier gestational age, and NICU admission were associated with worse working memory performance and receipt of early intervention services. Lower birthweight and NICU admission were also associated with slower processing speed. History of NICU admission was associated with caregiver ratings of hyperactivity and emotional dysregulation. The effects of perinatal risk factors on neurocognitive, academic, or educational outcomes were not dependent on SCD genotype. History of LBW or NICU admission was associated with worse cognitive outcomes and increased use of early intervention services among children with SCD. Early identification of perinatal risk factors will help identify children who will benefit from formal developmental or neuropsychological evaluations to manage the comorbidity of SCD and perinatal risks and facilitate increased intervention.

Under the Law: Grade retention and the law

Under the Law: Grade retention and the law

Association of Accelerometer-Measured Physical Activity With College Student Success and Retention.

This study examined the relationship between physical activity (PA) and academic performance and retention among college students using accelerometer data while controlling for sex and socioeconomic background. Data were collected from 4643 first-year college students at a private university in the south-central United States who began their studies in the Fall semesters between 2015 and 2022. Daily step counts were collected using accelerometers worn as part of the institutions PA requirements. The expected family contribution was calculated based on information provided on the Free Application for Federal Student Aid. Grade point average (GPA) and retention data were collected directly from official university databases. Female students generally had lower median age and steps count and a higher median GPA than males. The retention rates from fall to spring and fall to fall were 95.9% and 83.8%, respectively, with no significant difference in retention rates between males and females. GPA was significantly positively correlated with steps, expected family contribution, and age, and negatively correlated with being male and having an expected family contribution of zero. The fall to spring retention rate was significantly positively correlated with steps and GPA. The study's findings suggest that increasing levels of PA, as measured by daily step counts, may be effective in promoting academic performance and retention, even when controlling for sex and socioeconomic background. The use of device-based measures of PA in this study contributes to the literature on this topic, and policymakers and educational institutions should consider interventions focused on academic performance and physical activity to help students persist.

Reviewing Concentrated Poverty Literature Through an Antiblackness Lens to Reveal a Concentrated Debt

The relationship between concentrated poverty and educational outcomes has received substantial attention in academic research over the last 3 decades. Researchers have argued that neighborhood characteristics are associated with academic achievement, educational attainment, dropout rates, college entry, cognitive abilities, attendance, and grade repetition. Given that Black students constitute a large proportion of those living in concentrated poverty, coupled with the urgency of contemporary times where state-sanctioned violence is on full display in the United States, assessing how education scholars are conceptualizing concentrated poverty is vital. Utilizing an antiblackness lens to critically review 64 recent articles addressing concentrated poverty and educational outcomes, we explicitly drew on anti-Black scholarship to expand the discourse from “concentrated poverty” to a “concentrated debt.” A concentrated debt constitutes education, racial capital, placemaking, and humanity debts. We argue that to address these debts, we must move beyond deficits, lacks, and disorganization of Black neighborhoods and toward humanizing Black students and their families by investing in their homes, schools, and communities.

Multi-pool chemical exchange saturation transfer MRI in glioma grading, molecular subtyping and evaluating tumor proliferation.

To evaluate the performance of multi-pool Chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST) MRI in prediction of glioma grade, isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutation, alpha-thalassemia/mental retardation syndrome X-linked (ATRX) loss and Ki-67 labeling index (LI), based on the fifth edition of the World Health Organization classification of central nervous system tumors (WHO CNS5). 95 patients with adult-type diffuse gliomas were analyzed. The amide, direct water saturation (DS), nuclear Overhauser enhancement (NOE), semi-solid magnetization transfer (MT) and amine signals were derived using Lorentzian fitting, and asymmetry-based amide proton transfer-weighted (APTwasym) signal was calculated. The mean value of tumor region was measured and intergroup differences were estimated using student-t test. The receiver operating curve (ROC) and area under the curve (AUC) analysis were used to evaluate the diagnostic performance of signals and their combinations. Spearman correlation analysis was performed to evaluate tumor proliferation. The amide and DS signals were significantly higher in high-grade gliomas compared to low-grade gliomas, as well as in IDH-wildtype gliomas compared to IDH-mutant gliomas (all p < 0.001). The DS, MT and amine signals showed significantly differences between ATRX loss and retention in grade 2/3 IDH-mutant gliomas (all p < 0.05). The combination of signals showed the highest AUC in prediction of grade (0.857), IDH mutation (0.814) and ATRX loss (0.769). Additionally, the amide and DS signals were positively correlated with Ki-67 LI (both p < 0.001). Multi-pool CEST MRI demonstrated good potential to predict glioma grade, IDH mutation, ATRX loss and Ki-67 LI.

Contribution of machine learning to the analysis of grade repetition in Spain: A study based on PISA data

Contribution of machine learning to the analysis of grade repetition in Spain: A study based on PISA data

The influence of grade retention on students' competences in Spain

AbstractGrade retention is at the core of the education debate in Spain, to the extent that its impact on students' competences has not been assessed beyond correlation. Because of that, in the present study, we analyse the influence of grade retention on students' competences, using more than 146,000 students from 6 PISA cycles (2003–2018) and an instrumental variable approach, in order to approach a causal influence. Our results show that repeating a grade in Spain seems to reduce students' competences between 1.5 and 1.7 standard deviations. Based on these results, we conclude that the Spanish educational authorities should find an alternative to grade retention, in order to prevent students from attaining a lower competence level due to repetition.

Development of a User-Friendly Self-Screening Tool for Assessing Metabolic Syndrome Risk in Youths from Economically Challenged Regions.

Metabolic syndrome increases the risk of heart disease and diabetes. Early identification and management are crucial, especially in economically challenged regions with limited healthcare access. To develop nomograms for individualized risk estimation for metabolic syndrome in young people from low-income regions. We assessed 496 college students from two Brazilian cities with Gini indices ≤0.56. Of these, 69.9% were female, 65.1% were younger than 20 years, 71.8% were non-white, and 64.3% were enrolled in health-related courses. For external validity, we assessed metabolic syndrome in a subset of 375 students. We found 10 variables associated with abdominal obesity by logistic regression: age, biological sex, physical education facilities, enrollment in sports competitions during elementary school, grade retention, physical education as the preferred subject, physical education classes per week, and enrollment in sports training in secondary school (score A); adherence to 24 h movement behaviors (B score); and body weight (score C). We designed three nomograms (for scores A, B, and C), all of which showed acceptable performance according to the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (≥0.70) and calibration (Hosmer-Lemeshow test, p > 0.05). In the external validation, we observed higher predictive capability for the A and B scores, while the C score had lower but still acceptable predictive ability. User-friendly self-reported data accurately predict metabolic syndrome among youths from economically challenging areas.

Participation in shadow education and academic performance: A comparison of upper secondary school students in Ireland and Germany

This article uses two longitudinal cohort studies (Growing Up in Ireland and the National Educational Panel Study) to examine how shadow education relates to academic performance in Ireland and Germany. Patterns of take-up of, and outcomes from, shadow education are found to reflect the particular country context—aimed at maintaining performance to avoid grade retention in Germany and preparing for a high-stakes upper secondary exam in Ireland. Participation enhances academic performance but only for students with lower levels of prior achievement. However, the relationship is not much stronger than with engagement in structured out-of-school activities. Thus, shadow education appears to be one of a number of strategies used by more privileged families to secure educational advantage.

Importancia de las relaciones sociales y de la inteligencia general en estudiantes de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria

This study explores the relationships between emotional intelligence (EI), general intelligence (GI), and demographic factors (gender, age, grade repetition). The sample consisted of 341 secondary students (177 male students and 164 female students) aged between 12 and 17 from the province of Valladolid (Spain). Regarding gender, significant differences were identified in the correlations between EI and GI, suggesting variations in the manifestation of this relationship between male and female students. Age also influenced these correlations, highlighting the evolution of the EI-GI relationship as students grow and mature. Grade repetition was associated with differences in correlations, indicating the impact of educational experiences on the development of emotional and cognitive skills. Although the correlations found do not support concluding theories, they highlight the importance of addressing EI, especially in students repeating grades, to enhance social skills and academic well-being. These findings help to understand the EI-GI interaction in educational contexts, emphasizing the relevance of considering demographic and contextual factors in the promotion of these skills in students.

Heavy episodic drinking among French adolescents between 2005 and 2022: decreasing prevalence rates and increased risks.

To study the prevalence of alcohol use among French adolescents over time and factors associated with heavy episodic drinking (HED) among drinkers. Our analysis relies on six waves of a standardized cross, sectional survey conducted in mainland France between 2005 and 2022. The overall sample size comprises 179905 adolescents aged 17 (90166 males and 89739 females). Two outcomes were considered: declaring past month HED (at least one) and repeated HED (at least three) in the past month between 2005 and 2022. Relative risks and probabilities according to years of survey, gender and frequency of alcohol use (past 30 days) were estimated using modified Poisson regressions controlling for grade retention, schooling, living out of parental household, socioeconomic status, and other substance (tobacco, cannabis, other illicit substances) use. Despite a steady decline in alcohol use among French adolescents over the past two decades, the prevalence of HED still concerned one, third of 17-year-olds in 2022. The reduction in alcohol use conceals an increased likelihood of HED among occasional drinkers (<10 times a month). Moreover, the probability of HED among females is similar to that of males, or even higher depending on the frequency of use. HED is becoming an increasingly common behavior among adolescent drinkers. The decline in prevalence conceals a homogenization of behavior between genders. Our results also question underage access to alcohol, despite increasing legal restrictions. These results support general prevention in early adolescence aimed at all drinkers, and not only at the most frequent or "at-risk" drinkers.

Prevention of School Attendance Problems in Japan: A Macro-Level Perspective on Avoidance Behaviour

In this study, we examined government policies and the relevant law on prevention measures for school attendance problems in Japanese compulsory education schools from the perspective of school avoidance behaviour. In summary: (a) the number of students with school attendance problems has been increasing rapidly since 2017; (b) despite an increase in school counsellors as a government-initiated prevention measure, the number of students with school attendance problems has risen; (c) government policies and the relevant law seek to foster social independence even for students unable to return to school and to provide spaces where students with school attendance problems feel comfortable, which may inadvertently reinforce or perpetuate school avoidance behaviour; and (d) in the Japanese compulsory education system, stakeholders have limited opportunities to block school avoidance behaviour. We propose two measures to prevent school attendance problems drawing on a macro-level behavioural perspective: (a) employing data on class absences in mainstream schools, regardless of the reason for the absence, as an evaluation criterion for prolonged school absenteeism, and (b) implementing appropriate grade repetition for students who miss classes in their mainstream school over a certain threshold, including withholding the school diploma.

Analysing the dropout patterns of individual children in Nepal: relationship between school dropout and grade repetition/entrance age

PurposeUsing longitudinal data of children in Nepal, this study examines the relationships between dropouts, grade repetition and the causes of dropout, such as entrance age, to derive concrete recommendations to improve the basic education completion rates in Nepal, one of the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4).Design/methodology/approachThe data for this study were drawn from school records kept in the target schools, home visit surveys and interviews with principals and teachers. After comparing the repetition experience and the frequency of repetitions between graduates and dropouts, the study analysed the dropout patterns of individual children. The study then examined the effects of repetition and entrance age on children’s schooling.FindingsThe results identified a large group of children who dropped out of school without any repetition, with only 15.9% of the children repeating a grade immediately before dropping out. The findings indicated that harsh family environments, being overage and low educational expectations were factors in sudden dropout.Originality/valueCollecting longitudinal data is difficult in developing countries, and few studies use such data. The question of access to education has been re-ignited by the COVID-19 pandemic; this study used longitudinal data to thoroughly analyse children’s dropout patterns and provide specific recommendations that will contribute to the achievement of SDG4.

Combining Statistical and Machine Learning Methods to Identify Predictors of Brazilian Students’ Proficiency in PISA 2018

Brazil’s education system lags behind international standards, with two-fifths of students scoring below the minimum level of proficiency in mathematics, science, and reading. Thus, this study combined machine learning with traditional statistics to identify the most important predictors and to interpret their effects on proficiency in the PISA 2018 mathematics, science, and reading tests. Predictors encompassed a wide range of variables, sociodemographic characteristics, teaching and learning processes, and non-cognitive skills. The outcome of the present study was proficiency in mathematics, science, and reading. PISA proficiency levels were grouped into “low proficiency” and “proficient” categories, using a classification system commonly employed in PISA reports. Using random forest analysis, a machine learning method, I compared the importance of predictors for proficiency in mathematics, science, and reading. I then adjusted multilevel logistic regression analyses to investigate the relationship between the top predictors and the outcomes. Among the top predictors for the three outcomes identified, annual household income, parents’ highest occupational status, and early childhood education and care were positively associated with proficiency in mathematics, science, and reading, while grade repetition and additional instruction were negatively associated with these outcomes. These findings urge Brazilian policymakers and educators to prioritize initiatives that strengthen early childhood programs, minimize grade repetition, and promote effective learning strategies.

Factors associated with the use of benzodiazepine and opioid prescription drug in the student population: a cross-sectional study

The misuse of benzodiazepines and opioid medications is frequent in students. To improve our understanding of this behavior, we aimed to identify factors associated with separate and concomitant use of these substances. Anonymous self-reported questionnaires were e-mailed to students enrolled at a French university between March and July 2021, covering: sociodemographic characteristics, academics, psychoactive substance use, ADHD symptomatology (adulthood and childhood), and psychiatric/psychological or addiction follow-up. Factors associated with the use of benzodiazepines and opioid medications included female sex (OR = 1.41 [1.08; 1.86]) and OR = 1.38 [1.06; 1.79], respectively), older age (OR = 1.65 [1.04; 2.6] and OR = 2.17 [1.4; 3.36], respectively), current psychiatric/psychological follow-up (OR = 6.53 [5.18; 8.24] and OR= 1.5 [1.12; 2.0], respectively), ADHD symptomatology (OR= 2.33 [1.71;3.16] and OR= 1.61 [1.15; 2.24], respectively), polyconsumption (tobacco use for benzodiazepine users, OR = 1.38 [1.04; 1.82]; alcohol use OR = 1.67 [1.17; 2.39] and tobacco use OR = 1.62 [1.23; 2.14] for opioid users). These factors were even more strongly associated with the concomitant use of benzodiazepines and opioid medications: older age (OR = 3.64 [2.22; 5.99]), female sex (OR = 1.54 [1.1; 2.14]), grade repetition (OR = 1.7 [1.14; 2.54]), psychiatric/psychological follow-up (OR = 4.51 [3.35;6.06]), ADHD symptomatology (OR = 5.3 [3.69; 7.63]), polyconsumption (tobacco use OR = 2.05 [1.39; 3] and cannabis use, OR = 2.07 [1.97; 4.16]. The factors associated with the use of benzodiazepines and prescription opioids identified in this study could lead to the development of targeted prevention methods.

Meaning in life as a moderator of the relationship between bullying victimization profiles and life satisfaction in young adolescents

AbstractLatent profiles of bullying victimization were examined to determine membership information and distinctive buffering roles of meaning in life between bullying victimization groups and life satisfaction. The PISA data set (n = 4695) of 15‐year‐old young adolescents was analyzed. Static predictors of membership consist of gender, immigrant status, parental education, and grade repetition. Latent profile analysis, analysis of variance, multiple logistic regression, and multivariable regression were utilized for a comprehensive understanding of bullying victimization memberships and related outcomes. Three distinctive latent profiles emerged: (a) Stable &amp; Resilient (SR) (75.6%); (b) Mild &amp; Internal (MI) (18.4%); and (c) Severe &amp; External (SE) (6.0%). Immigration, gender, grade repetition, and parental education were found to be predictors of membership in the bullying victimization groups. Males, and immigrants, with higher parental education, and grade repetition experience significantly predicted increases in possibilities of membership in the MI or SE latent groups. Meaning in life has significant buffering roles for bullying victimization on life satisfaction. The moderating effect of meaning in life was strongest for the SE group. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Compensatory advantage and inequality in educational aspirations

Using two administrative and survey-based datasets from Hungary, I look at how children from different socioeconomic backgrounds update their educational aspirations in response to having to repeat a grade late in primary school. I find that grade retention is detrimental to aspirations and later secondary school track choice, and on average, it affects children of lower socioeconomic backgrounds more adversely. The average effect masks heterogeneities by the reasons for repeating: those children who are likely to repeat seventh grade due to poor mathematics performance do not change their aspirations significantly after retention, regardless of their socioeconomic background. However, they are less likely to attend a secondary school track that provides access to tertiary education. As we move towards higher performers in mathematics – and consequently, more heterogeneous reasons for repeating –, retention results in a larger drop in aspirations and the probability of a secondary track ending with a high school diploma. In both outcomes, high socioeconomic status largely and, in some cases, entirely offsets the adverse effects.

The Academic Effects of Moving to Middle School on Students With Disabilities Relative to Their General Education Peers

Middle school transitions are increasingly required, despite documented negative effects on general education students (GENs). We explore if and how the move to middle school differentially affects students with disabilities (SWDs), a large and low-performing group. Using an instrumental variables strategy and New York City (NYC) data on nine student cohorts, we find the middle school transition causes a 0.29 SD decline in SWD math performance, a 0.16 SD decline in English language-arts (ELA) performance, and a one percentage point increase in grade retention. Accounting for potential mediators (e.g., peer cohort stability) does not substantially explain estimated effects on SWD performance. However, the middle school transition has similarly large negative effects on GENs, suggesting the need to ease this transition for all students.