Threat Of Retaliation Research Articles

The Intention To Blow The Whistle : Testing The Correlation Between Ethical Leadership And Retaliation In The Organization

This research helps explain the factors that influence a person's intention to do whistleblowing. This study examines the effect of retaliation (the treatment of revenge) and ethical leadership on the whistleblowing decisions of postgraduate students with masters of accounting at universities in Central Java. The novelty of our study is First, we fill in gaps in previous studies using students as the population; most studies use employees (such as auditors) as the main population.This study is considered to be the first micro-level analytical research in the area. Second, answering whether the ethical principles possessed by superiors influence employees to do whistleblowing. Questionnaires were administered privately, and respondents were convinced of retaliation, value orientation and whistleblowing intentions for data confidentiality and the anonymity of the respondent's identity. Testing the data in the study used the Partial Least Square (PLS) analysis tool.The primary research data used in the research were obtained through questionnaires. The results of the study show that: (1) Ethical Leadership has a positive and significant effect on the intention to do whistleblowing; (2) Retaliation or the threat of retaliation has a negative and significant effect on a person's intention to carry out a whistleblowing.

Multi-market contact, tacit collusion, and decentralized managerial decision-making

Competition in a market may be weaker if the same firms also compete against each other in other markets. Conventional explanations for this mutual forbearance depend on centralized firm decision-making, which permits the threat of concerted retaliation across many markets at once. However, in large firms, market-level decisions may be delegated to managers. We show that multi-market contact can still promote tacit collusion in this case, even though each manager cares only about profit in her own market. In our model, the main linkage between markets is informational: in collusive equilibria of a repeated game with noisy monitoring, outcomes in a second market may be evidence about a competitor's incentives in a first market. The model expands the antitrust concerns about multi-market contact to situations in which independent branch-level decision-making appears to be occurring.

Multimarket contact between partners and strategic alliance survival

AbstractResearch SummaryThe impact of multimarket contact (MMC) between partners on strategic alliance survival is unclear, even though recent studies have suggested that MMC increases the likelihood of alliance formation. Our study investigates this issue by integrating two mechanisms occurring between multimarket firms: mutual forbearance and technological resource imitation. We argue that MMC between partners deters opportunism in alliances via mutual forbearance, resulting in a positive effect on the likelihood of strategic alliance survival. We also suggest that the positive effect is weakened in two settings with higher risks of technological resource imitation: technological overlap between partners and the presence of R&D activities in an alliance. Evidence from strategic alliances in the global semiconductor industry supports these conclusions.Managerial SummaryRecent research has shown that firms encountering each other in multiple markets are more likely to form strategic alliances, but it is unclear whether these firms are likely to stick together. Our theory suggests that the threat of broad retaliation limits opportunism and increases the likelihood of alliance survival when partners encounter each other in multiple markets. Nonetheless, in settings where partners have similar technologies, or in alliances involving R&D activities, their ability and incentives to copy each other's technological resources offsets the positive effect of multimarket contact on alliance survival. We study strategic alliances in the global semiconductor industry and find evidence consistent with these arguments.

As a Man Is, So Is His Company

Amid its confrontation with the West, Moscow faces the pressing need to reexamine its approach to alliance-building. Currently Moscow has to foster low-profile countersanction alignments. Meanwhile, the prospect of an armed clash with the United States and NATO makes one think about alliances that would strengthen Russia’s conventional deterrence. Formalizing defense commitments with China becomes an important prerequisite for addressing the increasingly reckless Western coercion. The traditional counterarguments against a Russia-China alliance appear obsolete now that the U.S. directly designates Russia and China as adversaries, openly expands its military presence at their borders, gears up military buildup, and mobilizes its allies. For Russia, an alliance with China would diminish reliance on the threat of nuclear retaliation and increase flexibility of its deterrence posture.

Residents' Fear of Retaliation in America's Nursing Homes: An Exploratory Study.

The phenomenon of residents' fear of staff retaliation when voicing care concern and making mistreatment complaints in nursing homes has been shown in research to be common. Despite longstanding concerns by care advocacy organizations about this phenomenon and its impact on residents (including emotional suffering, inadequate care, and mistreatment due to fear-driven lack of reporting, investigation, and resolution), little research examined it to date. Using 100 standard survey and complaint investigation reports from state survey agencies in nursing homes in 30 states, the researcher of this qualitative study aimed to improve understanding of residents' lived experience of four aspects of this phenomenon-fear of retaliation, allegations of threats of retaliation, perceived retaliation, and actual (confirmed) retaliation-and their emotional consequences. The findings could inform practice and policy changes necessary to realize residents' federal right to speak up without fear of retaliation when advocating for dignified and safe care.

Mobilizing or Sedative Effects? A Narrative Review of the Association Between Intergroup Contact and Collective Action Among Advantaged and Disadvantaged Groups

Academic In this narrative review, we examined 134 studies of the relationship between intergroup contact and collective action benefiting disadvantaged groups. We aimed to identify whether, when, and why contact has mobilizing effects (promoting collective action) or sedative effects (inhibiting collective action). For both moderators and mediators, factors associated with the intergroup situation (compared with those associated with the out-group or the in-group) emerged as the most important. Group status had important effects. For members of socially advantaged groups (examined in 98 studies, 100 samples), contact had a general mobilizing effect, which was stronger when contact increased awareness of experiences of injustice among members of disadvantaged groups. For members of disadvantaged groups (examined in 49 studies, 58 samples), contact had mixed effects. Contact that increased awareness of injustice mobilized collection action; contact that made the legitimacy of group hierarchy or threat of retaliation more salient produced sedative effects. Public We present a review of existing studies that have investigated the relationship between intergroup contact and collective action aimed at promoting equity for disadvantaged groups. We further consider the influence of contact that is positive or negative and face-to-face or indirect (e.g., through mass or social media), and we distinguish between collective action that involves socially acceptable behaviors or is destructive and violent. We identified 134 studies, considering both advantaged (100 samples) and disadvantaged groups (58 samples). We found that intergroup contact impacts collective action differently depending on group status. Contact generally leads advantaged groups to mobilize in favor of disadvantaged groups. However, contact has variable effects on members of disadvantaged groups: It sometimes promotes their collective action in support of their own group; in other cases, it leads them to be less likely to engage in such action. We examine when and why contact can have these different effects.

Clubbing in trade policies: How much a threat to the multilateral constitution?

AbstractPreferential trade agreements (PTAs) have mushroomed over the last decades. However, the various forms of bi- and plurilateral arrangements have always been met with the concern that their proliferation might come at the expense of overall trade freedom because of undermining multilateral governance. This paper starts from the fact that international treaties are notoriously difficult to enforce, as is compliance with (trade) agreements. By focusing on the political economy of how cooperation in trade liberalization is ultimately sustained via the threat of retaliation as institutionalized within the World Trade Organization (WTO), the paper illuminates a novel and completely different channel between PTA membership and multilateral trade liberalization. Exploring their interaction with respect to trade freedom, we explain that PTA membership actually improves on the working of multilateral arrangements that are supposed to ensure cooperation in trade liberalization, thus effectively catering to more open trade.

Rites of Retaliation: Civilization, Soldiers, and Campaigns in the American Civil War by Lorien Foote

Reviewed by: Rites of Retaliation: Civilization, Soldiers, and Campaigns in the American Civil War by Lorien Foote Clayton J. Butler (bio) Rites of Retaliation: Civilization, Soldiers, and Campaigns in the American Civil War. By Lorien Foote. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2021. Pp. 312. Cloth, $95.00; paper, $22.95.) Adapted lectures often make for great books. Faced with the presence of a very real audience, the author has an added impetus to deliver a compelling story and a convincing argument. Derived from a series of Brose Lectures given at Penn State University in 2019, Lorien Foote’s new monograph certainly achieves both goals. Foote makes a strong case that during the Civil War the development of military policies of retaliation—officially sanctioned penalties imposed by one belligerent on the other for going beyond the brink of what it considered “civilized” warfare—had a marked impact on the nature of combat, the experiences of prisoners, and the outcome of the conflict itself. Foote contends that the Civil War represented a contest in which both sides saw nothing less than civilization itself at stake and that both sides used the threat of retaliation to assert the vision of civilization for which they fought. They were, in effect, setting the rules of the game. Though recent works, such as Aaron Sheehan-Dean’s Calculus of [End Page 258] Violence: How Americans Fought the Civil War (2018) and D. H. Dilbeck’s A More Civil War: How the Union Waged a Just War (2016), have investigated the Civil War in the context of international laws of war and just-war philosophy, both engaging incidents of retaliation, Foote’s argument that retaliation served as a legitimate and widely sanctioned method of directly influencing conduct in the field sets her book apart. Foote situates her study in the Department of the South, comprising the coastal areas of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, which became the site of intense controversy over the deployment of Black troops, mis-treatment of prisoners, and the summary execution of combatants during the war. Two starkly divergent visions of civilization and civilized society promptly collided there, visions that cut to the heart of the sectional conflict. Proceeding chronologically, Foote’s narrative benefits from the early introduction of several dynamic and articulate figures, including Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Robert Gould Shaw, Ethan Allen Hitchcock, and David Hunter. Hunter’s unhesitating organization and deployment of Black troops, almost from the outset of his tenure in command of the department, initiated a showdown between seemingly irreconcilable Union and Confederate policies. Confederates saw Hunter’s actions as tantamount to leadership of a slave rebellion, a barbaric act aimed at the destruction of southern civilization. Hunter saw the practice of enslavement, for all intents and purposes the Confederate raison d’être, as itself barbaric and the antithesis of civilized ways. Indeed, these clashing conceptions of civilization hold the key to understanding how nonslaveholding southerners and nonabolitionist northerners found the motivation to fight in the first place. Nonslaveholding Confederates fought to protect southern civilization as they understood it, which they perceived as gravely menaced by the so-called Black Republican administration. Nonabolitionist northerners fought for a civilization of free labor undergirded by the Union, even if that vision paid little to no heed to Black Americans’ rights. Foote rightly notes that once one begins to look for the language of “civilization” in the parlance of the Civil War era, it becomes ubiquitous. The debate over the Union’s use of Black troops offers Foote her best example of how military leadership turned to policies of retaliation to influence the direction of the fighting. Jefferson Davis, she writes, “was convinced he could shape Federal policies through the threat of retaliation” (43). Confederates proposed to reenslave or execute the Black soldiers they encountered in battle. It seemed to them an eminently justifiable position. The only thing that ultimately gave them pause was the prospect of retaliation. The thought that Confederate prisoners might suffer the same fate as Black soldiers forced them to reconsider their policy and generally, though [End Page 259] by no means in every case, stayed their hand. By treating Black soldiers as equals in the...

Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Intention Whistleblowing

This study aims to determine the factors that influence whistleblowing intentions such as attitudes towards behavior, subjective norms, perceptions of behavioral control, perceptions of the seriousness of fraud, perceptions of threats of retaliation against whistleblowing intentions internally and externally and rationalization as moderation. The population in this study were employees who working in the accounting field in the Jabodetabek area which is primary data using a questionnaire survey and a purposive sampling method which has three criteria so that out of 278 respondents only 271 respondents could be sampled. This study uses multiple linear regression analysis tests. The results of this study are that attitudes towards behavior have a positive effect on whistleblowing intention internally, subjective norms have a positive effect on whistleblowing intention internally and externally, perceived behavioral control has a positive effect on whistleblowing intention externally, perceptions of seriousness fraud has a positive effect on whistleblowing intention internally, perceptions of the threat of retaliation have a negative effect on whistleblowing intention internally, rationalization is able to strengthen the effect of perceived seriousness of fraud on external whistleblowing intention, and rationalization is able to weaken perceptions of threats of retaliation on whistleblowing intention internally.

The carbon border adjustment mechanism is inefficient in addressing carbon leakage and results in unfair welfare losses

The European Commission has proposed a Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) to reduce carbon leakage and create a level playing field for its domestic products and imported goods. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of the proposal remains unclear, especially when it triggers threats of retaliation from trading partners of the European Union. We apply a Computable General Equilibrium model - Global Trade Analysis Project - to assess the economic and environmental impacts of different CBAM schemes. Here we show that the effectiveness of the CBAM to address carbon leakage risks is rather limited, and the CBAM raises concerns over global welfare costs, Correct to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) losses, and violation of equality principles. Trade retaliation leads to multiplied welfare losses, which would mostly be borne by poor countries. Our results question the carbon leakage reduction effect of a unilateral trade policy and suggest that climate change mitigation still needs to be performed within the framework of international cooperation.

Effectiveness of nuclear deterrence against Russia

ObjectivesThe objective is to answer three research, policy, and strategy questions: 1. Is and will be the NATO and US strategy of nuclear deterrence effective against Russia? 2. Can the strategy of nuclear deterrence as the supreme guarantee of the security of NATO have a lasting public acceptance in the member states? 3. Is it necessary to complement the NATO and US strategy of nuclear deterrence with another, also strong but different, guarantee of security?MethodsQualitative methodology is used. Offical documents and scientific publications provide the basis for analysis.ResultsThe answer to question 1 is mostly but not fully positive: Against Russia, the NATO and US strategy of nuclear deterrence probably has and will have high although not absolute effectiveness. Evaluated are five nesserary conditions of effectiveness. Negative is the answer to question 2 if concerning Poland and other countries of the eastern flank of NATO that have little knowledge of and historical experience in nuclear arms and strategy: The strategy of nuclear deterrence based on the threat of nuclear retaliation against nuclear-armed nations will probably not gain a lasting public acceptance. Affirmative is the answer to question 3: The NATO and US strategy of nuclear deterrence requires a complementary strong security guarantee.ConclusionsScientific and technological progress will likely allow NATO to create a complementary guarantee by realizing the concept – which was unattainable in the past, including during the Cold War – of an impenetrable shield against nuclear weapon delivery means in airspace and outer space.

미국의 인플레이션 감축법이 우리나라 전기차 공급망에 미치는 피해의 최소화를 위한 협상대책

The US Inflation Reduction Act is expected to cause significant damage to the electric vehicle industry in Korea and EU. This study focuses on negotiation measures between Korea and USA to minimize damages related to the supply chain of the automobile industry, which is expected from the implementation of the IRA. The IRA is ultimately intended to build a US-centered electric vehicle production ecosystem, and from the standpoint of the Korean automobile industry, it is necessary to move away from relying on China for major raw materials for batteries so far, and to restructure or significantly adjust the supply chain. Regarding the IRA, both the Korea-US negotiations and the Korea-China negotiations have important meaning considering the future growth engines of electric vehicles and batteries. In negotiations with the United States, it is desirable for Korea to recognize that the nature of the issue is derived from the multilateral economic hegemony of the United States, and to engage in negotiations based on principle, that is, a problem-solving attitude that excludes political and diplomatic relations with both the United States and China. For the US, it is desirable to pursue a strategy that maximizes the actual benefits that can be obtained from local foreign direct investment rather than focusing on the application of exceptions to the IRA Act. If Korea fully accepts the US position on the IRA and makes a decision against China’s interests, there may be a threat of retaliation from China, and we must prepare for this at various levels.

Backstage Mockery: Impoliteness and Asymmetry on the World Stage

AbstractIn recent years, episodes of diplomatic “impoliteness” have attracted growing attention among international relations (IR) scholars. Whether in the form of sharp-edged humor, insults, or other face-undermining behavior, scholars are increasingly examining episodes where the expected civility of diplomacy breaks down and impoliteness becomes weaponized as a tool of statecraft. While sympathetic to these approaches, I argue that the deployment of impoliteness cannot be understood in isolation from the powerful asymmetries that shape global politics. To show why, I advance a theory of mockery in international politics with an emphasis of a specific kind: backstage mockery. Building on the work of Goffman, I conceptualize mocking displays as acts of ridicule that undermine an actor's positive public image or “face” based on two contextual factors: (1) perceptions of transgression and (2) relative status. In hierarchical settings, lower-status members are often unable to openly criticize the transgressions of their social superiors because of the threat of retaliation. Covert or “backstage” mockery offers an outlet for weaker members to express their concerns and build solidarity with other members, while at the same time indirectly signaling those with higher status about problems. To illustrate the significance of backstage mockery, I discuss Canada–US relations and the 2019 viral video of NATO leaders appearing to privately mock US President Donald Trump.

Determinants of whistleblowing intentions of accountants: a middle range theoretical perspective

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to examine the key predictors of whistleblowing intention of accountants within the organization. By relying on the benefit-to-cost differential theory, this study examines the influence of professional skepticism, cognitive styles and perceived organizational support on whistleblowing intentions while controlling for the effect of some demographic variables on the estimated results. Further, the authors ascertain whether the threat of retaliation moderates the relationship between professional skepticism and whistleblowing intentions.Design/methodology/approachData was obtained from professional accountants licensed by the Institute of Chartered Accountants, Ghana by means of self-administered questionnaires. The partial least square-structural equation modeling technique was used to test for the hypothesized relationships in this study.FindingsThe results of this study suggest the intention to report wrongdoing within the organization is influenced by individuals’ level of professional skepticism, cognitive style and the perception that they will have the backing of their organization in reporting wrongdoing. Moreover, the authors also find females and individuals who have advanced in age to have greater motivation to report wrongdoing in the organization.Originality/valueThis study contributes to whistleblowing literature by highlighting the effect of professional skepticism on whistleblowing intentions. Also, this study provides empirical support for the applicability of the benefit-to-cost differential theory to the whistleblowing literature.

Examining Whistleblowing Intention: The Influence of Rationalization on Wrongdoing and Threat of Retaliation.

Whistleblowers who expose wrongdoing often face several concerns, pressures, and threats of retaliation before reaching a final decision. Specifically, this study examines the effects of perceived seriousness of wrongdoing (PSW) and perceived threat of retaliation (PTR), as well as the impact of rationalization (RNL), comparing perceived seriousness of wrongdoing, perceived threat of retaliation and whistleblowing intention. Furthermore, this study aims to determine the mediating effect of anticipated regret (AR) on the relationship between perceived seriousness of wrongdoing and whistleblowing intention. We validated our model by analyzing data gathered across three stages from employees in the telecom sector in Pakistan. The key findings of our research may be summarized as follows: (i) individuals’ willingness to ‘blow the whistle’ increases as a result of perceived seriousness of wrongdoing; (ii) whistleblowers are more likely to opt to remain silent if they anticipate a greater threat of retaliation, and (iii) our study establishes a positive connection between perceived seriousness of wrongdoing and whistleblowing intention, indicating that perceived seriousness of wrongdoing enhances people’s willingness to blow the whistle, and whistleblowers are more likely to choose to emerge if the behaviour is more serious in nature; (iv) the data we have uncovered indicates a moderating role of rationalization in regulating the connections between perceived seriousness of wrongdoing, perceived threat of retaliation, and whistleblowing intention; and (v) the findings demonstrate that anticipated regret mediates the connection between perceived seriousness of wrongdoing and the intention to report wrongdoing. Additionally, the results are discussed in terms of their significance for corporate ethics researchers and managers, as well as for end-users who are interested in whistleblowing.

Micro-disclosures for Macro-erasures: #MeToo in the Academy

Abstract: This essay explores how we might account for the influence of #MeToo in the academy and the extent to which we can understand the power of these utterances as a form of narrative agency expressed through digital life writing. Drawing on a blend of quantitative and qualitative analysis of #MeToo-related tweets about academia, the essay first examines how narrative agency over sexual harassment and violence in higher education is expressed through #MeToo. It further explores how the threat of retaliation and the troubling operationalization of Title IX by universities as an anti-survivor discourse produces macro-erasures of narrative agency. Finally, the essay proposes that #MeToo tweets about higher education are best understood as "micro-disclosures," a distinct form of life writing that facilitates the narrative agency denied by institutional systems and processes.

ENHANCEMENT OF THE NATIONAL DEFENCE POSTURE BY USING THE MILITARY POWER

The development of a national defence enhanced posture is a fundamental requirement in line with the developments of the current and possible future security environment, as well as regards the commitments made at North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and European Union (EU) level in relation with the development of capabilities and contributions to missions and operations. Romanian Army prepares, integrates at national level and, if necessary, makes use, in accordance with the law, of all available resources. While peacekeeping or peace-building operations are presented in the various defence and national security strategies as the last resort, the last option after all other measures have been actively explored, it remains in the eyes of public opinion and policy makers the first face of the armed forces, the heart of the profession of soldier. The conventional deterrence has always existed – if vis pacem para bellum. Two main mechanisms can discourage a potential opponent. The first is the threat of retaliation, also known as deterrence by punishment. The second mechanism consists in persuading him of the impossibility, or at least of great practical difficulty, of achieving his immediate objectives, thus prompting him to give up not for fear of the consequences of his action, but due to his low chances of success. The guarantee of sovereignty, independence and state unity, the territorial integrity of the country and constitutional democracy is the most fundamental task of the armed forces. It is, after all, the primary role of defending the land of the homeland when it is threatened. The most obvious expression of that is the concept of ensuring the capacity to implement defence plans drawn up at national level.

Evolution of deterrence with costly reputation information.

Deterrence, a defender’s avoidance of a challenger’s attack based on the threat of retaliation, is a basic ingredient of social cooperation in several animal species and is ubiquitous in human societies. Deterrence theory has recognized that deterrence can only be based on credible threats, but retaliating being costly for the defender rules this out in one-shot interactions. If interactions are repeated and observable, reputation building has been suggested as a way to sustain credibility and enable the evolution of deterrence. But this explanation ignores both the source and the costs of obtaining information on reputation. Even for small information costs successful deterrence is never evolutionarily stable. Here we use game-theoretic modelling and agent-based simulations to resolve this puzzle and to clarify under which conditions deterrence can nevertheless evolve and when it is bound to fail. Paradoxically, rich information on defenders’ past actions leads to a breakdown of deterrence, while with only minimal information deterrence can be highly successful. We argue that reputation-based deterrence sheds light on phenomena such as costly punishment and fairness, and might serve as a possible explanation for the evolution of informal property rights.

Voice or silence: antecedents of whistleblowing intentions

Purpose This study aims to examine the effects of peer ethical behavior and individual differences in valuation of fairness vs loyalty on whistleblowing intentions in academic settings. This study also tests the underlying mechanism responsible for the effects of peer behavior on reporting intentions, namely, fear of reprisal. Design/methodology/approach A survey was conducted with 947 undergraduate students. The model was tested using ordinary least squares regression models followed by bootstrapped mediation analyses. Findings Results showed that the effects of peer ethical behavior on whistleblowing intentions are mediated by fear of retaliation. Moreover, the findings indicated that, for low-severity transgressions, there is an interactive effect between fear of retaliation and endorsement of fairness over loyalty on whistleblowing intentions. Research limitations/implications When the misconduct is seen as minor, a potential whistleblower may understand that the expected costs outweigh the possible benefits of blowing the whistle. In such situations, higher fear of retaliation would undermine the effects of individual’s endorsement of fairness over loyalty on reporting intentions. Practical implications As the social environment significantly affects someone’s whistleblowing intentions, there should be visible efforts to improve and to foster an ethical infrastructure in organizations. Social implications As fear of retaliation by peers is one of the most important determinants affecting the decision to report misconduct in general, there must be serious efforts from leaders to mitigate any threat of retaliation to those who come forward. Originality/value This work contributes to the discussion about individual and situational antecedents of whistleblowing. More importantly, it sheds light on one potential boundary condition for the influence of the fairness–loyalty tradeoff on whistleblowing decisions: severity of the transgression. The findings provide initial evidence that, for low-severity transgressions, fear of retaliation weakens the positive effects of one’s moral compass in terms of preference for fairness over loyalty on whistleblowing intentions.

Share price reactions to tariff imposition announcements in the Trump era – An event study of the trade conflict

Employing a unique sample of 2,849 tariff imposition announcements by and against the United States (U.S.) over the period from 2018 to 2019, this study analyzes the impact of recent tariff announcements on share prices from 859 U.S. companies. We provide evidence for negative (cumulative) average abnormal stock returns due to tariff announcements during a symmetric three-day event window. We suggest that stock market investors expect adverse impacts of tariff impositions, e.g. a decrease in the companies' future cash flows and a threat of retaliation. The negative wealth effects are observed irrespective of whether the Trump administration announces safeguard tariffs to protect domestic firms or a retaliation is declared by foreign countries. Moreover, building several subsamples, we find that the adverse impact is mostly driven by announcements involving China and is associated with a variety of sector, tariff, trade and firm characteristics.