Restrictions And Responsibilities Research Articles

3D modelling of subsurface legal spaces and boundaries for 3D land administration

The increasing trend of urbanization results in various problems regarding enabling the livable cities such as traffic congestion, environmental pollution, and inadequate disaster preparedness. These problems are considerably related to deficiencies in the aboveground usable areas that can be exploited for the development of urban areas. Underground development is one of the strong solutions to cope with the aforementioned problems. The holistic planning of underground space is an important factor in ensuring the efficient use of underground space. Land administration that deals with the cadastral rights, restrictions, and responsibilities (RRRs) on the surface and subsurface is highly significant in the context of planning the underground space. By nature, there is a need for three-dimensional (3D) ownership information below the surface in order to carry out the analyses within planning studies regarding different aspects such as the existing subsurface structure and environmental impacts. This paper therefore enriches the core data model of the CityJSON standard such that it allows for 3D modelling of legal spaces and boundaries in the subsurface. It presents the usability of the proposed extension by visualizing the underground cadastral RRRs in 3D through the created and validated CityJSON file based on this extension. The practical opportunity arising from the use of CityJSON files derived from the developed extension is demonstrated. Different case studies are presented including the compliance checking regarding the designed underground tunnel within building permitting. The results of this study show that integrated 3D land administration including subsurface can contribute to the facilitation of the overarching planning of underground space.

3D UNDERGROUND LAND ADMINISTRATION BY STANDARDIZED GEOINFORMATION

Abstract. The density of the built environment is growing due to the migration from rural areas to urban areas. The challenges that should be addressed are therefore increased in today’s built environment. In relation to this, the productive use of underground space is essential to overcome the problems on the surface. Since the built environment has complex and multi-layered buildings more than ever, the delineation and management of the cadastral rights, restrictions, and responsibilities (RRRs) are significantly difficult in two-dimensional (2D). For this reason, creating approaches for the efficient representation of RRRs in three-dimensional (3D) is a hot topic in recent years. Considering the multifaceted structure of the underground, 3D geoinformation regarding the underground is needed for managing the underground space. Regarding this, it is significant to underline that legal and administrative namely land administration considerations are integral parts of the planning of underground space. This paper thus extends the CityJSON core schema in a way that it can be used for 3D delineation of underground cadastral RRRs.

BIM-LADM AMALGAMATION — A REVIEW

Abstract. This paper discussed two International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards, namely, ISO 19152 – Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) and ISO 16739 – Industry Foundation Classes (IFC), to identify three-dimensional (3D) multi-floor building rights. These days, it is challenging to characterize all multifunctional structures due to the increase in complex buildings. High-rise building land and property information management is recommended through building information modeling (BIM). Countries like the Netherlands, Australia, and Turkey have considered adopting BIM for their land administration. A land administration standard, such as LADM, offers better legal and physical representation in identifying the rights, restrictions, and responsibilities (RRRs) of the spatial units and stakeholders. However, LADM falls short in representing all building elements, such as semantic information and invisible functional spaces. Hence, this paper reviews incorporating additional information from BIM to create a comprehensive three-dimensional building representation including legal information from LADM. Issues and challenges also being highlighted with some recommendations for possible future works.

Design of the new structure and capabilities of LADM edition II including 3D aspects

The decision to refine the existing content and to extend the scope of Edition I of the ISO 19152:2012 Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) is a response to requests from the international Land Administration (LA) community. This response has to be formally organised in accordance with ISO guidelines. This begins with gathering feedback from ISO/TC 211 Member States on the need for updated and enhanced capabilities of the LADM. In addition, several proposals have been made to extend the scope of the LADM Edition I. After analysing the feedback received, it was proposed to develop the LADM Edition II as a multi-part standard: Part 1 — Generic conceptual model, Part 2 — Land registration, Part 3 — Marine georegulation, Part 4 — Valuation information, Part 5 — Spatial plan information and Part 6 — Implementation aspects. In other words, Edition I focuses on land tenure, while the design and development of Edition II is based on the inclusion of rights, restrictions and responsibilities (RRRs) concerning marine georegulation, valuation information, spatial plan information as well as LADM implementation. 3D representations are relevant for all parts.This paper focuses on the design of the new structure of the second edition of the LADM and on the (operational) capabilities of this new edition in relation to the LA issues in Parts (standards addressing a specific part of the scope) and Packages (groups of conceptually close classes), with a particular attention to the requirements and design related decisions taken in the revision process. The parts 1, 2, 4 and 5 are the parts in which the authors are currently involved. Part 1 will be a high-level umbrella standard; Part 2 is largely based on LADM Edition I and focuses on land registration, with an enhanced support on the surveying functionality, including new subclasses of spatial unit, and extended 3D spatial profiles. Part 3 harmonises the description of RRRs and aligns land concepts with marine aspects from the marine domain based on the International Hydrographic Organisation (IHO) S121 Maritime Limits and Boundaries Product Specification. Part 4 deals with valuation information used and produced in the context of land administration, while Part 5 deals with spatial planning information and includes the planned use of the land (zoning), resulting in RRRs. Lastly, Part 6 is planned to be about implementation of the LADM and will be developed in close collaboration with the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC).

3D Spatial Analysis of Temporal Maintenance for Multi-use High-rise Buildings: Case Study

Urbanization has sparked an increase in the construction of multi-use highrise buildings which consists of commercial parcels on their lower floors and residential parcels on their higher floors. In contrast to conventional landed houses, the residents of high-rise buildings share common facilities and private parcels or spaces also differ according to ownership or use. The management and maintenance of these spaces are dependent on the ownership of the parcel where each ownership adheres to different rights, restrictions, and responsibilities (RRRs). Therefore, accurate representation and identification of those parcels affected by maintenance or renovation is crucial for assisting management bodies to improve the quality of life within a multi-use high-rise building. This study attempts to implement a temporal maintenance management for highrise building parcels within a 3D spatial database. A 3D space segmentation was done to analyze the ownership and use of space in a high-rise building. Spatial queries were also performed based on the temporal maintenance of the parcels; in addition, 3D spatial relationships were used to determine adjacent parcels that were affected by the maintenance. Thus, the implementation of temporal strata database management with an accurate 3D representation of the space can provide management bodies with concise and comprehensive information on parcels with respect to ownerships and uses.

Implementation of 3D spatial planning through the integration of the standards

AbstractTo plan future land use, zoning plans (i.e., spatial plans) are prepared to get the most out of land for both the public and the government. These plans manifest which facilities can be built and where they can be built on land based on defined requirements such as building height and road length. The Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) is well‐known and widely used standard for describing Rights, Restrictions, and Responsibilities (RRRs) with respect to land and buildings. The next version of the standard will contain the Spatial Plan Information (SPI) part to enable better land‐use planning. Three‐dimensional (3D) land‐use planning has gained attention to delineate detailed requirements inclusively and allow different spatial analysis that provides a basis for decisions in the planning. Data standards pertaining to 3D geoinformation are vital to put into practice 3D spatial planning. To this extent, CityJSON is proposed for the effortless and efficient use of 3D city models. This article thus first aims to extend the CityJSON schema based on the proposed SPI part of the LADM such that it allows modeling, storing, visualizing, and utilizing the features and attributes required for the implementation of 3D spatial planning. Then, the usability of the proposed extension schema is demonstrated by the real‐world use cases that benefit from the exemplary CityJSON files that are created based on approved zoning plans in the country. The results of this study show that there is an important opportunity coming from the integration of international standards that enables semantic information along with their spatial counterparts within 3D spatial planning.

Spatial-Land use planning system data model proposal for edition II of LADM

Spatial plan decisions guide both the future use of the lands and many activities from protection to construction and permit. Due to its functions, spatial plan decisions play a key role in land administration. Spatial planning information for integrated land administration systems (LASs) should be associated with land registration systems. The Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) standard offers components to enable this structure. Integrating spatial plan data with LASs will provide standardization for plan data and assurance of plan decisions. Although the spatial planning mission differs across various administrative regions, planning activities produce land use decisions, albeit in different ways. The study aims to establish the common points in planning activities and design a joint spatial planning system data model using various countries’ spatial planning systems and international standardization studies. The spatial plans in the model that has been proposed are depicted as a system, not merely by the rights, restrictions, and responsibilities (RRRs) that they establish on the land. The results point out that spatial planning systems have some similarities but also some limitations to support conceptual model design. Based on joint data and relationships, the proposed spatial planning system data model can be adapted for different country practices. The study’s results are expected to support the LADM second version development studies.

Undertaking land administration reform: Is there a better way?

Governments establish land administration systems to formally acknowledge and protect property rights, restrictions, and responsibilities (RRR). The protection and recording of property rights is implemented under a jurisdiction-specific complex set of policies, laws, systems, and procedures. In recent decades, the World Bank and many other development partners have provided funding to support land administration reform so that governments can formally acknowledge and protect property rights and provide efficient and effective land administration services. The experience and lessons from these projects have been documented. There have been successes but there have also been projects that have failed to realise clearly stated objectives. A recurrent theme in these evaluations is that many projects fail to create effective, transformative change in the delivery of land administration services and gain the critical mass, and the community participation, necessary to ensure the sustainability of land administration reform. The traditional approach for land administration reform projects has been to focus on the economic and technical design of interventions based on a library of best practice, with perhaps too little attention on politics and governance in land administration reform. Many of the issues or problems noted in the literature relate not to economic or technical matters, but to policy and political decisions. The current approach to land administration reform would appear to need reform itself. The sector needs to seriously consider the political economy issues that impact on the provision of efficient and effective land administration services. There have been concerted efforts to develop more politically informed ways of thinking and working in the design of donor-funded interventions using a range of methodologies including ‘Thinking and Working Politically’ (TWP). Adopting a TWP, or similar politically informed approach, has a lot of potential, but may not be the full answer and TWP may complement rather than replace existing approaches to reform assessment, design, and implementation. This paper sets out a broad review of the experience, lessons, and literature on land administration reform and the potential for adopting a new approach for reform.

A semantic 3D city model for underground land administration: Development and implementation of an ADE for CityGML 3.0

Current practices of managing and communicating underground physical and cadastral (legal) data are based on fragmented and silo-based 2D methods, which cannot provide unambiguous, coordinated, and reliable representations of assets and their rights, restrictions, and responsibilities (RRRs) in subterranean environments. There is also no link between underground physical and legal data in current practices, resulting in ineffective Underground Land Administration (ULA). A single 3D integrated model of underground assets associated with the cadastral data at a city-scale can improve understanding and interpretation of underground legal and physical aspects. Extending a 3D city model to include underground legal data requirements can potentially provide a viable approach for developing a 3D integrated model. This research aims to develop a new Application Domain Extensions (ADE) for CityGML 3.0 (called VicULA ADE) to manage underground data using a single 3D integrated legal-physical model at a city-scale. The VicULA ADE proposes semantic entities for underground legal spaces, enabling the model to define spatial and semantic relationships between different types of legal spaces. The proposed approach comprises identifying requirements based on the Victorian state of Australia, developing the conceptual and logical data models in UML, and implementing the XML schema as the physical data model. The viability of the VicULA ADE is tested in a complex real-world case study that has various underground legal and physical objects, shifting this data model from a conceptual level to the implementation level. The proposed ADE of the CityGML 3.0 standard revealed how underground legal data elements can be logically embedded in this 3D data model.

THE JOINT SPATIAL PLANNING DATA MODEL

Abstract. In modern times, spatial planning activities have been the process of determining projections for future land use. Spatial plans produce decisions about space in many different fields, from construction to transportation and environmental, natural, and cultural protection. The right, restrictions, and responsibilities (RRRs) to use the land pieces whose physical borders and legal status are registered with the cadastral process are determined by the spatial plans in line with the national purposes, public welfare, and healthy urbanization objectives.Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) is a general-purpose data model introduced in 2012 with International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards. LADM proposes standards for many data infrastructures and land administration systems. In this context, although it does not have complete recommendations within the scope of spatial planning. It is essential to make additions to version II. As a result of gradual studies, spatial planning processes and decisions can be presented in a data model and the model can be associated with the LADM standard structure and integrated into land registration systems. Since LADM offers a conceptual model, newly created packages must be designed in a conceptual data model. The conceptual model is a product of several stages. This study focuses on how can produce a conceptual model in which countries can share spatial planning data. The requirements of the model that achieves this aim are revealed by considering the conceptual model production stages. By evaluating the findings, how can obtained data which helping to design the classes, class relations, and attributes of the data model were searched. With the conceptual data model to be prepared in line with the requirements, it is thought that land management processes can be strengthened by providing integration with spatial plans in LADM-based land administration systems.

Modelling the legal spaces of 3D underground objects in 3D land administration systems

One of the significant challenges in current 2D Land Administration Systems (LAS) is defining and registering the Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities (RRRs) attached to the underground objects. A 3D LAS can facilitate a better understanding, as well as a more efficient registration and clear visualisation of the RRRs than a 2D LAS, through 3D digital modelling of the legal ownership of underground objects below the surface. To register the objects below the surface in a 3D LAS, 3D physical data as well as 3D legal data shall either be registered and integrated into one model, or the physical and legal models shall be linked effectively. In the context of this paper, the IFC (ISO 16739:2018) is used to register the 3D physical data, while the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM, ISO 19152:2012) is used to structure the legal data. To achieve the link of the respective legal and physical data, the classes of the LADM are mapped to the elements of the IFC. A standardised workflow is presented in this paper where the inclusion of the legal, organisational and technical aspects of modelling the legal ownership results in a comprehensive approach to solve the challenges that currently prevent the registration of the RRRs of 3D objects below the surface in LASs. This paper also provides a general method for mapping the LADM classes to the IFC entities. Two case studies were conducted to assess the technical aspect of the workflow, where the RRRs of objects below the surface and the parcels above the surface were registered and visualised on the 3D geospatial visualisation platform CesiumJS.

TOPOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS IN R3 FOR 3D CADASTRE

Abstract. 3D cadastre is necessary for accurately representing real-world parcels that not only exist on land but also above and below ground. The ability to cater to the physical and legal attributes of these 3D parcels is important as it affects the Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities (RRRs). Tasks such as modification and analysis of 3D parcels also require topological information in addition to the geometrical properties of a 3D parcel. Topological properties describe the connectivity information between objects. In terms of the 3D cadastre, the intrinsic topology is used to ensure the spatial objects that make up a 3D solid are valid, while extrinsic topology is used to determine adjacent 3D solids or overlapping parcels. This paper attempted to define topological relationships in 3D space specifically for the use of 3D cadastre. 3D to 3D solid and 2D to 2D surface topological interactions were defined and proved using the Dimensionally Extended Nine Intersection Model (DE-9IM). The “meet (touches)” and “overlaps” topological relationships were found to be the main topological relationship used in the 3D cadastre.

How to exploit BIM/IFC for 3D registration of ownership rights in multi-storey buildings: an evidence from Turkey

The condominium rights, which is a special ownership type that can only exist in the buildings that have an occupancy permit, are needed to be examined and depicted as three-dimensional (3D) in order to prevent misinterpretations and disputes regarding Rights, Restrictions, and Responsibilities (RRRs). This paper, therefore, aims to provide the model that extends the Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) schema by referencing Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) in the sense of reusing the Building Information Modeling (BIM)/IFC model of the building for 3D registration of condominium rights in Turkey. The results of the study show that there is a solid potential to benefit from BIM/IFC model in order for both 3D representation of the ownership rights in the multi-storey buildings and obtaining the semantics of the condominiums in terms of wide ranges of attributes such as area, volume, land share, and RRRs.

AUTOMATIC MODELLING OF PROPERTY OWNERSHIP IN BIM

Abstract. A 2D land administration system is insufficient for managing private properties and common property areas in a multi-story structure. Building information modelling (BIM) can be used to provide a clearer representation and more efficient management of the rights, restrictions, and responsibilities (RRR) inside buildings and address the challenges of 2D representations. However, a land surveyor should still draw the legal boundaries and group ownership spaces manually inside 3D BIM authoring tools. This research aims to provide an automatic approach to define three different types of legal boundaries and group the common properties and private properties within a building. This work contributes to the use and development of BIM by providing an automatic technique to creating property ownership, allowing for easier search and retrieval of 3D property information. More significantly, it can potentially minimize the time and cost of creating BIM-based 3D cadastral data for complex multi-story structures and improve the efficiency in urban land administration.

A BIM/IFC – LADM SOLUTION ALIGNED TO THE GREEK LEGISLATION

Abstract. The ongoing rapid urbanization has led to the emerge of several complex infrastructures distinguished by multi-dimensional and overlapping property rights. The option of integrating BIM data into LA, aligned with international standards and able to handle the three-dimensional (3D) aspect of cadastral objects utilizing contemporary technologies, may be of a great importance. The main objective of this paper is to investigate the potential integration of the Building Information Model (BIM) and the Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) standard, with the international standard of Land Administration Domain Model (LADM ISO 19152 2012), in order to provide a unified solution for the registration and visualization of 3D spatial and sematic information regarding the complex Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities (RRR) in the new complex constructions. The proposed solution aims to exploit the available 2D plans for the generation of BIMs; and rely on international LADM’s constructional guidelines to provide a standardized cadastral database harmonized with the national Greek cadastral and the legal framework and aligned with the current Greek building code. The proposed framework is tested for two multi-storey buildings. The first results are promising constituting an important tool, for the implementation of 3D cadastres.

Developing a building information modelling approach for 3D urban land administration in Iran: a case study in the city of Tehran

In recent years, overpopulation in Iran has created a significant demand for urban land. Iranian land administration system currently relies on two-dimensional (2D) plans to capture, register, and manage vertically stratified ownership rights. This 2D method leads to issues in representing the rights, restrictions, and responsibilities (RRRs) associated with complex building structures. This study proposes a new approach driven from Building Information Modelling (BIM) to support 3D urban land administration in Iran by considering the critical data requirements for managing ownership spaces in the context of Iranian jurisdiction. The BIM data model was implemented for a case study building in the City of Tehran to demonstrate its feasibility. The proposed BIM-based approach was compared with the traditional 2D system using a questionnaire responded to by land administration experts. This research confirmed that a BIM-based approach could provide significant benefits for 3D urban land administration in Iran.

Developing an adapted land administration domain model profile for Kenya

Land is an important resource globally and its administration and management are crucial in meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for example goal 15 and targets 1.4, 2.3, and 5.a. Most land information, more so in the developing countries, are paper based and manually managed. Several countries are working on digital migration for land processes and administration. This is done by first developing a data model for both land parcel and attribute information. International Standards Organization (ISO) Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) was developed in 2012 as a universally accepted model for managing land information. Since then, several countries have developed their country profiles, while others are in the process of developing their regional or country profiles based on their unique requirements. In Kenya, work on a country profile is underway.Several factors need to be considered while developing or extending a LADM country profile. These include a defined scope and stakeholder involvement. Sound methodology is required to deliver a country model. Reviewing the existing legal framework and processes is key. Consequently, the needs of the users and reviewing the earlier proposed models is important. This research, has in addition, interviewed stakeholders and experts on land administration in Kenya and validated these through Focus Group Discussions.To meet requirements related to gender rights and recordation, community land rights, pastoralists seasonal occupation of land and informal occupation required special attention in the process of developing the model for Kenya. The required attributes, Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities (RRR) and relationship between the classes were also identified.This paper provides a comprehensive set of requirements for developing an extended country profile for Kenya based on the ISO LADM.

Arazi idaresi temel modeli planlama paketi geliştirilmesi için Türkiye mekânsal planlama sisteminin incelenmesi

Spatial plans include land use and structuring decisions aimed at ensuring sustainable development, which emerge from the evaluation of many sectorial policies. Spatial plans bring many rights, restrictions and responsibilities (RRR) on privately owned lands and public use areas in terms of construction and use. The Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) is a standard published by ISO and deals with RRRs affecting land and their geometric components in land management. It aims to present a standard conceptual model and common ontology. There are many factors that affect the land and land use. Although there are several factors, the countries' land registry and cadastral systems are used while representing the RRRs affecting the land in the model, other facts containing many RRRs are not included. Except land registry and cadastre system, there are taxation procedures, various contract, legal document and spatial plan that create RRRs on property. Within the scope of the study, spatial plans have been examined as they contain a wide variety of RRRs and have a strong relationship with the land administration. This study aims to obtain outputs that will create a spatial planning package to integrate Turkey into the country profile of the LADM. In this direction, the legal bases, sample spatial plans, plan notes and official documents were examined, and the spatial plans were classified, and the information they represented was obtained. The results were analyzed, and it was concluded that sufficient infrastructure information was provided to create a spatial planning package within the LADM.

Object Analysis and 3D Spatial Modelling for Uniform Natural Resources in China

Natural resource management has entered a new stage in 2018 in the People’s Republic of China (China) marked by the establishment of the Ministry of Natural Resources of China (MNRPRC). More functions and responsibilities are integrated in the MNRPRC to build a uniform management system for full natural resource features in China with the aim of implementing uniform spatial planning and regulation, management, use and control, surveying, and registration for full natural resources. This paper first provides a detailed analysis regarding full natural resources with the perspectives of spatial forms and rights, restrictions, and responsibilities (RRRs); then, the modelling foundation of the “uniform” concept in natural resource registration is reconsidered. Lastly, we put forward a basic conceptual model for the uniform registration of full natural resources based on LADM (Land Administration Domain Model).

A framework for spatial analysis in 3D urban land administration – A case study for Victoria, Australia

The prolific growth in multi-story buildings in Victoria, Australia challenges the efficiency of 2D land administration system in dealing with spatially complex situations. Therefore, 3D digital approaches are being investigated to facilitate the management of rights, restrictions and responsibilities (RRRs) in cities. Previous research has focused on providing a general framework for 3D urban land administration. Generally, the main components are data capturing, data integration and modelling, validation, visualisation and spatial analysis. In order to provide future steps towards realising the 3D-enabled land administration system, an exact framework is also needed for each component; however, there is no comprehensive research to identify all the spatial analysis requirements and provide a general pathway for creating a unified spatial analysis system in urban land administration. Developing efficient mechanisms for spatial analysis can unlock the value of 3D RRR data, which would subsequently improve decision-making in complex urban environments. Therefore, this study provides a framework for spatial analysis in 3D urban land administration system. The paper’s methodology utilises a case study approach in which the existing regulations and legislations are investigated to identify the required spatial analysis. Then the capabilities of current 3D analytical approaches in terms of addressing regulatory requirements are assessed in order to gain a general view of the research gaps. By considering the identified 3D analytical requirements and knowledge gaps, a framework for spatial analysis will be provided.