Restricted Flooding Research Articles

Performance of geographically restricted flooding for emergency alert applications

ABSTRACT For various emergency alert applications like a disaster, accident, or hazard alert, geographically restricted flooding can prove to be extremely vital, especially considering the absence of any fixed infrastructure and the alert having spatio-temporal boundaries. Among various geographically restricted flooding schemes, in this work, a scheme called floating content is considered. Floating content uses geographically restricted flooding to make a piece of information available within a certain geographic area. In this work, an Android-based emergency alert application is deployed and tested in two different environments. One environment spans over a small geographic area (an office), while the other environment is a university campus. The application is used to log the mobility patterns of users for both the considered environments, and these mobility patterns are thoroughly analyzed. Then the performance of the considered emergency alert application in terms of key performance metrics is evaluated for both of the considered settings by considering single and multiple seeders (alert generators). Moreover, for the prediction of performance, two different analytical models are also evaluated, and the results of these models are compared with the ones obtained from real-world experiments, showing the performance limits of geographically restricted flooding.

KOGPSR: A 3D GPSR algorithm using adaptive Kalman prediction for FANETs with omnidirectional antenna

Nowadays, flying ad hoc network (FANET) has captured great attention for its huge potential in military and civilian applications. However, the high-speed movement of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in three-dimensional (3D) space leads to fast topology change in FANET and brings new challenges to traditional routing mechanisms. To improve the performance of packet transmission in the 3D high dynamic FANETs, we propose a 3D greedy perimeter stateless routing (GPSR) algorithm using adaptive Kalman prediction for FANETs with omnidirectional antenna (KOGPSR). Especially, in data forwarding part of the KOGPSR, we propose a new link metric for greedy forwarding based on a torus-shaped radiation pattern of the omnidirectional antenna of UAVs, and a restricted flooding strategy is introduced to solve the 3D void node problem in geographic routing. In addition, in order to enhance the accuracy of the location information of high dynamic UAVs, we design an adaptive Kalman algorithm to track and predict the motion of UAVs. Finally, a FANET simulation platform based on OPNET is built to depict the performance of the KOGPSR algorithm. The simulation results show that the proposed KOGPSR algorithm is more suitable for the actual 3D high dynamic FANET.

Minimum energy transmission forest‐based geocast in software‐defined wireless sensor networks

AbstractWireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)‐based geographic addressing and routing have many potential applications. Geocast protocols should be made energy efficient to increase the lifetime of nodes and packet delivery ratio. This technique will increase the number of live nodes, reduce message costs, and enhance network throughput. All geocast protocols in the literature of WSN apply mostly restricted flooding and perimeter flooding, which is why still the redundancy they produce significantly high message transmission costs and unnecessarily eats up immense energy of the nodes. Moreover, perimeter flooding cannot succeed in the presence of holes. The present article models WSN with software‐defined (SD) constructs where the network area is divided into some zones. Energy‐efficient transmission tree(s) are constructed in the geocast area to organize the flow of data packets and their links. Therefore, redundancy in the transmission is eliminated while maintaining network throughput as good as regular flooding. Besides, this study introduces a fuzzy controllers named SELECT‐STARTER and GEOCAST‐PROPAGATOR for intellgent energy tansmission control‐making. The proposed technique significantly reduces energy cost and improves nodes' lifetime to function for higher time duration and produce a higher data packet delivery ratio. To the best of the author's knowledge, this is the first work on geocast in SD‐WSNs.

A Distributed Survivable Routing Algorithm for Mega-Constellations With Inclined Orbits

Mega-constellations consisting of hundreds to thousands of low-earth-orbit (LEO) satellites are an attractive solution for providing global ubiquitous network access. Due to good coverage properties for populated areas, inclined orbits are gaining popularity among commercial constellations. A scalable routing algorithm with survivability plays a key role in such systems. In this paper, we propose a distributed survivable routing algorithm for mega-constellations with inclined orbits. First, the special topology characteristic of inclined constellations is identified and formalized. Based on the topology characterization, a basic X-Y routing algorithm is presented to determine multiple primary and secondary paths towards each destination utilizing the regularity of the network topology with minimal computation overhead. Then, a failure recovery mechanism which consists of a restricted flooding mechanism and a pre-detour mechanism is proposed to reduce end-to-end delay and signaling overhead in case of link failures. Besides, a partial-record loop avoidance mechanism is proposed to deal with routing loops with minimal overhead. Finally, a vector-based next hop selection mechanism is proposed to facilitate the selection of next hop while incorporating various criteria. The performance of the proposed routing algorithm is evaluated through simulation on the Starlink constellation. Simulation results show that our proposal achieves scalability by reducing signaling overhead and provides better quality of service in terms of end-to-end delay under link failures.

アドホックネットワークにおける指向性アンテナを用いた適応型位置情報ルーチング

In mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), when information about the location of the destination node is known, efficient communication can be achieved by using location-based routing protocols. Even in location-based routing protocols, with omnidirectional antennas there is some redundant route discovery by blind flooding of route request packets outside the area between the source and destination. These redundant route discovery propagations can be reduced by using both a scheme of restricted flooding and directional antennas. In this paper, we propose a new location-based routing protocol using both restricted flooding and directional antennas, called Adaptive Location-Aware Routing with Directional Antennas (ALAR-DA). To investigate the performance of ALAR-DA, we compare it with existing location-aware routing protocols. Our simulation results show that ALAR-DA outperforms existing protocols from the standpoints of delay and route discovery traffic.

A novel approach to enhance the network lifetime for hybrid routing protocol

The quintessential ambition of this work is with relevance to the clustering protocol in order to maximise the network life time of the WSNs that is achieved by clustering concept to reduce the energy consumption. Most of the clustering algorithms, specifically low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy LEACH, consummates enormous energy concerned with the overheads; repeated clustering head selection procedures, etc. In this work, a new LEACH-based hybrid clustering algorithm is proposed. This new routing scheme quadrant-based LEACH proposed is an admixture of two routing schemes LEACH WSN and Q-DIR ad-hoc. It uses the additional conceptual of quadrant formation, IGNs and restricted flooding to accomplish the ideology. As an additional focus the work concentrates on the radio model and devices the energy parameters relevant to the protocol operation. The results exhibits that QB-LEACH collaterally assures energy efficient operation when compared with that of its predecessors.

Reactive Face Geocast in Spatially Separated Wireless Sensor Network

The delivery of packets from a source node to all the nodes located at a particular geographical area of interest is called geocasting. Most of the existing protocols try to suffice the objective of guaranteed message delivery and low transmission cost for a fully connected network and has failed to deal with sensor nodes isolated among the geographical region. We propose the concept of Reactive Face Geocasting (RFG) for Spatially Separated Wireless Sensor Network (SS-WSN) where the location of nodes are known on the fly and planarization starts as soon as the relay transmits the data to one of the boundary node. First, we propose a Circum Triangle (CT) mobility algorithm for the mobile relay which makes a trust worthy effort to deliver geocast message to the destination region. Second, a localization scheme, Reactive Planarization (RP) planarizes the network, minimizing energy expenditure for the sensors. RP algorithm is fully reactive and work without prior knowledge of their neighbors. Third, we use a Dominating Set in restricted flooding to further reduce the cost of geocasting than existing mechanisms. The Dominating Set based Geocasting algorithm selects set of nodes, which have highest energy than the other nodes which can transmit data to the target node as a dominating set. The existing geocast protocol assumes the network to be a fully connected without any partition. Simulation results show that the RFG improves the residual energy and transmission cost in a mobile environment than the existing protocol with guaranteed delivery.

Data Transmission Scheme Using Mobile Sink in Static Wireless Sensor Network

Multihop communication in wireless sensor network (WSN) brings new challenges in reliable data transmission. Recent work shows that data collection from sensor nodes using mobile sink minimizes multihop data transmission and improves energy efficiency. However, due to continuous movements, mobile sink has limited communication time to collect data from sensor nodes, which results in rapid depletion of node’s energy. Therefore, we propose a data transmission scheme that addresses the aforementioned constraints. The proposed scheme first finds out the group based region on the basis of localization information of the sensor nodes and predefined trajectory information of a mobile sink. After determining the group region in the network, selection of master nodes is made. The master nodes directly transmit their data to the mobile sink upon its arrival at their group region through restricted flooding scheme. In addition, the agent node concept is introduced for swapping of the role of the master nodes in each group region. The master node when consuming energy up to a certain threshold, neighboring node with second highest residual energy is selected as an agent node. The mathematical analysis shows that the selection of agent node maximizes the throughput while minimizing transmission delay in the network.

A restricted flooding mechanism for efficient anycast server localization in MANETs

In wireless networks, reducing the number of redundant packets is one of the important mechanisms to minimize the required network bandwidth and the power consumed by network nodes. In this paper, an efficient and stateless flooding mechanism for anycast routing in wireless mobile ad hoc networks is proposed. The mechanism uses the technique of expanding ring search to decrease the related message traffic. A model of this mechanism is described. Based on this model, an extensive simulation study, together with real field experiments, has been conducted to investigate the performance of the proposed mechanism for anycast server localization. The simulation model has been developed in terms of a class of extended Petri nets that provide the possibility to conveniently represent parallelism of events and processes in the network. In simulation and real work experiments, fundamental performance metrics--response ratio, relative traffic and average response time--were investigated with varying distance of transmission and different combinations of model parameters. The obtained results show that the proposed approach to server localization in mobile ad hoc networks has good characteristics. As was demonstrated with a prototype system, the proposed routing method can be easily implemented at the application layer, without any changes at lower layers of the network protocol stack.

A Data Gathering Scheme using Dynamic Branch of Mobile Sink in Wireless Sensor Networks

This paper suggests a data gathering scheme using dynamic branch tree in wireless sensor networks. A mobile sink gathers data from each sensor node using a dynamic data gathering tree rooted at the mobile sink node. As the sink moves, a tree that has multiple branch is formed and changed dynamically as with the position of the sink node. A hop-based scope filter and a restricted flooding scheme of the tree are also suggested. Simulation results show that the proposed data gathering scheme has better results in data arrival rate, the end-to-end delay and energy saving characteristics compared with the previous scheme.

A Source-Location Privacy Preservation Protocol in Wireless Sensor Networks Using Source-Based Restricted Flooding

Wireless sensor networks are widely deployed to monitor valuable objects.Attackers can find out the source node by hop-by-hop backtracking strategy.So,we need provide source anonymity for sensor networks.This paper examines that the phantom source nodes generated by the existing source location privacy preservation protocols are near the real source.So they can not protect the real source node well.As such,this paper proposes a protocol called PUSBRF(Source Location Privacy Preservation Protocol in Wireless Sensor Network Using Source-Based Restricted Flooding).And based on PUSBRF,it proposes another protocol called EPUSBRF(Enhancement Source Location Privacy Preservation Protocol in Wireless Sensor Network Using Source-Based Restricted Flooding)under the consideration of an attacker with enhancement visual ability.Simulation results show that compared to the existing protocols,the new protocols provide strong source location privacy preservation and the average safety period is increased by nearly one order of magnitude.

Virtual Surrounding Face Geocasting in Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks

Geocasting in wireless sensor and ad hoc networks means delivering a message from a source node to all the nodes in a given geographical region. The objectives of a geocasting protocol are two-fold: guaranteed message delivery and low transmission cost. Most of the existing protocols do not guarantee message de-livery, and those that do, incur high transmission costs. In this study, we propose the concept of Virtual Surrounding Face (VSF), and design a VSF-based geocasting protocol (VSFG). We also design a SKIP method and a local dominating set (DS) based restricted flooding technique to further reduce the cost of VSFG. Through mathematical analysis and comprehensive sim-ulations, we show that VSFG, together with SKIP and local DS based restricted flooding, guarantees message delivery and has a much lower transmission cost than the previous approaches. The reduction of cost can be up to 65% compared with the most effi-cient existing approach.

A Scheme of Restricted Flooding and Greedy Forwarding Routing for Object Tracking Sensor Networks

A protocol named RFGFR (Restricted Flooding and Greedy Forwarding Routing) is presented in this paper. RFGFR propagates query packets from the sink to the centroid of a target region, it employs a scheme of restricted flooding and greedy forwarding results in fewer nodes to forward packets, which means less energy consumption. Greedy forwarding decision can reduce transmission delay by reducing communication hops. Simulations show RFGFR exhibits better performances for object tracking in sensor networks.

Minimum-delay energy-efficient source to multisink routing in wireless sensor networks

This paper proposes a simple and scalable approach to multisink routing scheme in wireless sensor networks. Wireless sensor network is a rapidly growing discipline, with new technologies emerging and new applications under development. In addition to providing light and temperature measurements, wireless sensor nodes have applications such as security surveillance, environmental monitoring, and wildlife watching. One potential problem in a sensor network is how to transmit packets efficiently from single-source to multi-sinks, i.e., to gather data from a single sensor node and deliver it to multiple clients who are interested in the data. The difficulty of such a scenario is finding the minimum-cost multiple transmission paths. Many routing algorithms have been proposed to solve this problem. Most current algorithms address the reduction of power consumption, and potentially introduce a large delay. This paper proposes a novel multi-path routing algorithm, called hop count based routing (HCR) algorithm, which considers energy cost and transmission delay simultaneously. A hop count vector (HCV) is introduced to support routing decision. Moreover, an additional pruning vector (PV) can further enhance routing performance. The proposed algorithm also provides a maintenance mechanism to handle the consequence of faulty nodes. A failure of a node leads to an inaccurate HCV. Therefore, an efficient correction algorithm is necessary. An Aid-TREE (A-TREE) is applied to facilitate restricted flooding. This correction mechanism is more efficient than full-scale flooding for correcting the limited inaccurate HCVs. Finally, the impact of failed nodes is studied, and an algorithm, called Lazy-Grouping, is proposed to enhance the robustness of HCR.

CARBON, NITROGEN, AND PHOSPHORUS ACCUMULATION IN FLOODPLAINS OF ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN RIVERS, USA

Net nutrient accumulation rates were measured in riverine floodplains of the Atlantic Coastal Plain in Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware, USA. The floodplains were located in watersheds with different land use and included two sites on the Chickahominy River (urban), one site on the Mattaponi River (forested), and five sites on the Pocomoke River (agricultural). The Pocomoke River floodplains lie along reaches with natural hydrogeomorphology and on reaches with restricted flooding due to channelization and levees. A network of feldspar clay marker horizons was placed on the sediment surface of each floodplain site 3–6 years prior to sampling. Sediment cores were collected from the material deposited over the feldspar clay pads. This overlying sediment was separated from the clay layer and then dried, weighed, and analyzed for its total carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) content.Mean C accumulation rates ranged from 61 to 212 g·m−2·yr−1, N accumulation rates ranged from 3.5 to 13.4 g·m−2·yr−1, and P accumulation rates ranged from 0.2 to 4.1 g·m−2·yr−1 among the eight floodplains. Patterns of intersite variation in mineral sediment and P accumulation rates were similar to each other, as was variation in organic sediment and C and N accumulation rates. The greatest sediment and C, N, and P accumulation rates were observed on Chickahominy River floodplains downstream from the growing metropolitan area of Richmond, Virginia. Nutrient accumulation rates were lowest on Pocomoke River floodplains that have been hydraulically disconnected from the main channel by channelization and levees. Sediment P concentrations and P accumulation rates were much greater on the hydraulically connected floodplain immediately downstream of the limit of channelization and dense chicken agriculture of the upper Pocomoke River watershed. These findings indicate that (1) watershed land use has a large effect on sediment and nutrient retention in floodplains, and (2) limiting the hydraulic connectivity between river channels and floodplains minimizes material retention by floodplains in fluvial hydroscapes.

Scalable team multicast in wireless ad hoc networks exploiting coordinated motion

In this paper, we study a new multicast paradigm for large scale mobile ad hoc networks, namely team multicast. In team multicast the multicast group does not consist of individuals, rather, of member teams. For example a team may be a special task force that is part of a search and rescue operation. The message must be broadcast to each member of each team in the multicast group. Team multicast is very common in ad hoc networks set up to accomplish some collective tasks, such as for emergency recovery or battlefield applications. A key problem in several of the above applications is scalability to large membership size as well as network size. Our approach exploits motion affinity (more precisely, team members’ coordinated motion) which is typically present when the set of nodes has a commonality of interests. Each team can be viewed as a logical subnet. Within the team a landmark node is dynamically elected. The addresses of and the paths to the chosen landmarks are propagated into the whole network so that a source of a multicast group can route to the landmark of a subscribed team. Our protocol, Multicast-enabled Landmark Ad Hoc Routing (denoted as M-LANMAR), uses tunneling from multicast sources to each landmark of the subscribed team and restricted flooding within the motion group. Simulation study shows that M-LANMAR provides efficient and reliable multicast compared with the application of a “flat” multicast scheme (e.g., ODMRP) that does not exploit team coordinated motion. This paper contains three contributions: a new model for team multicast, with the definition of team dynamics (join, merge, split); the exploitation of team mobility and of landmarks in order to achieve scalable multicast, and; the implementation and performance evaluation of M-LANMAR, a landmark based team multicast scheme.

Maps of Cenozoic depositional provinces, western United States

Major provinces of Cenozoic deposits in western United States were controlled largely by the Cordilleran tectonic framework. As in late Mesozoic time, the principal sites of Cenozoic aggradation were the eastern and western flanks of the Cordillera. In contrast, the axial part received limited deposits throughout much of Cenozoic time, except for accumulation of volcanic debris. In early Cenozoic (Paleocene and Eocene) time, active aggradation prevailed along the western margin of the eugeosynclinal belt (thick marine deposits of the Pacific border) and in the Rocky Mountain miogeosynclinal belt (nonmarine deposits centered in Rocky Mountain basins and spreading across the northern Great Plains). Middle Cenozoic (Oligocene to middle Miocene) time was marked by restricted flooding along the Pacific border and by widespread volcanic-rich nonmarine sedimentation in the central and northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains. During this interval the axial part of the Cordillera was the site of extensive volcanic deposits - andesitic volcanic debris along the Cascade-Sierra Nevada axis, welded tuff in the Great Basin, and basaltic lava on the Columbia Plateau. Smaller patches of volcanic material accumulated in the Rocky Mountain miogeosynclinal belt. During late Cenozoic (late Miocene and Pliocene) time submergence of the Pacific border was accompanied by deposition of thick marine sequences in actively sinking basins. An extensive volcanic-rich nonmarine mantle continued to accumulate across the eastern Cordillera. The axial part was also the site of widespread volcanic-rich nonmarine sedimentation in many newly formed basins.