Restoration Of Hand Function Research Articles

The Restoration of Hand Function in Congenital Absence of Digits by Transplantation of a Toe - Surgical Aspects

The hand has several important functions. These not only include the commonly discussed functions of sensibility and touch, grip and pinch, but also functions in communication, emotional expression and even a sexual function. There are also important considerations about aesthetics and body image in those whose hands are disabled or deformed in any way. Restoration of as many of these functions as possible is the goal of hand surgeons and therapists. The priority of these functions depends to some degree on the patient and their aspirations, but generally speaking motor function supersedes sensation which takes priority over psychological and aesthetic issues.

The Restoration of Hand Function in Congenital Absence of Digits by Transplantation of a Toe - a Case Illustration

The Restoration of Hand Function in Congenital Absence of Digits by Transplantation of a Toe - a Case Illustration

Predicting 'normal' grip strength for rheumatoid arthritis patients.

An ability to predict accurately 'normal' grip strength in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients would facilitate a more accurate assessment of the degree of their functional loss. This, in turn, would allow the setting of more meaningful treatment goals aimed at restoring hand function towards normal. This study carefully measures three modalities of hand grip strength and their correlation with multiple simple anthropometric parameters in normal subjects. We aim to determine which of these parameters are best correlated to grip strength, and whether this correlation is strong enough to allow the accurate prediction of what normal grip strength should be in RA patients. In 81 normal subjects (67 female), power, pinch and tripod grip strength measurements were made using an MIE digital pinch grip analyser. These strength data were correlated with specific local forearm anthropometric measurements: forearm circumference, forearm length, forearm volume, hand circumference, hand length, hand volume, hand and forearm volume, and various general anthropometric parameters (weight, height and age). These normal subjects had been chosen so as to be age and sex matched with 83 RA patients (67 female) in whom the same strength and anthropometric parameters were assessed and correlated. In patients, the grip strength results were additionally correlated with two markers of disease activity: a modified Ritchie Articular Index local to the hand and forearm (mRAI) and a visual analogue scale (VAS) assessing subjective pain severity. In normal subjects, clear correlations were demonstrated between hand grip strengths and all specific anthropometric variables, the strongest correlation being with forearm and hand volume (r = 0.729 and 0.638 for dominant and non-dominant hands, respectively; P < 0.01 for both). The patients were considerably weaker than normal subjects. Markers of disease activity showed a negative correlation with grip strength. In normal subjects, the dominant hand was significantly stronger than the non-dominant hand, and on average by 8%, while the opposite was true in patients, who were 20% weaker on the dominant side. Simple anthropometric measurements, and forearm and hand volume in particular, would be useful at baseline for predicting 'normal' hand grip strength in RA patients, both in the clinical setting and in research trials aimed at improving grip strength and hand function.

Functional control of the hand in tetraplegics based on residual synergistic EMG activity.

A microprocessor controlled device (MeCFES) was used for the investigation of the possibility of restoring hand function in C5 tetraplegics with paralysis of the hand. To date, 3 tetraplegics have been testing the system. The myoelectric signals from wrist extension were recorded and used as control signals for functional electrical stimulation (FES) of thumb adduction/flexion. The results have shown that the device can improve the hand function of tetraplegics. In this part of the work, a hand function test was designed and used to assess the results.

POSTSURGICAL REHABILITATION OF DUPUYTREN’S DISEASE

Postoperative rehabilitation is an important component in the management of Dupuytren's disease patients. Through an effective splinting and exercise program, the surgical outcome can be enhanced. Treatment should be directed toward restoring hand function and monitoring development of complications that could compromise the outcome.

Transplantation of the gracilis muscle to restore hand function

Free muscle transplantation with motor innervation offers the posibility to add contractile elements to upper extremities with extensive loss of musculature due to direct trauma or untreated compartment syndrome (Volkmann's contracture). The functional cross section area and the mean resting fiber length determine the maximum power and the contracting amplitude of the donor muscle. Although considerably weaker than the finger flexors to be replaced, the gracilis muscle was the preferred donor muscle because of its neurovascular pedicle and the minimal donor site morbidity. In a series of 15 gracilis transplantations, all 13 muscles that survived regained function. Finger motion was dependent on the preoperative condition of tendons and joints. Even after complete loss of the flexor and extensor compartment a useful upper extremity could be restored, which was preferable to the only alternative – amputation.

An externally powered, multichannel, implantable stimulator-telemeter for control of paralyzed muscle.

An implantable integrated stimulator and telemetry system has been developed. The system is capable of fulfilling the stimulus and telemetry needs of advanced functional neuromuscular stimulation (FNS) applications requiring multiple channels of stimulation and multiple channels of sensor or biopotential sensing. This system provides a command control structure, an inductive radio frequency link providing power to the implant device as well as two-way transcutaneous communication, an ASIC for decoding the command and for providing functional control within the implant, and modular circuitry providing the application specific implant functions. Biocompatible hermetic packaging, lead systems, and in-line connectors suitable for long-term implantation, provide encapsulation for the circuitry and access to the electrodes and sensors used in the application. The first implant configuration realized from this modular system is targeted for clinical implementation in persons with tetraplegia at the C6 level for restoration of hand function, using wrist position as the command control source. The implant device realized has ten channels of stimulation and telemetry used to control and sense a joint angle transducer implanted in the radio-carpal joint of the wrist. A prototype device has been fabricated and is undergoing testing in an animal.

Free muscle transfer can restore hand function after injuries of the lower brachial plexus

One pattern of injury to the brachial plexus shows recovery of the fifth and sixth cervical nerves but little else. These patients have useful shoulders and functional elbow flexion, but elbow and wrist extension is weak or absent. Their hand function is negligible. We restored hand function in three such patients using free functioning muscle transfer for finger flexion and transfer of the sensory rami of the intercostal nerve to the ulnar nerve for sensation. Supplementary operations to restore elbow and wrist extension were necessary in one patient.

Free muscle transfer can restore hand function after injuries of the lower brachial plexus

One pattern of injury to the brachial plexus shows recovery of the fifth and sixth cervical nerves but little else. These patients have useful shoulders and functional elbow flexion, but elbow and wrist extension is weak or absent. Their hand function is negligible. We restored hand function in three such patients using free functioning muscle transfer for finger flexion and transfer of the sensory rami of the intercostal nerve to the ulnar nerve for sensation. Supplementary operations to restore elbow and wrist extension were necessary in one patient.

A new protocol for the treatment of hand deformities in recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa (13 cases)

The recessive form of dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa creates severe hand deformities with disabling functional limitations in the main daily activities. Typically, the thumb is contracted in adduction, the first web space is obliterated, the palm and digits are contracted in flexion and interdigital spaces are lost (pseudo-syndactyly). In this paper, we present our experience with a protocol based on the association of various internationally developed techniques: brachial plexus anesthesia with ketamine sedation, dynamic splinting and coverage of the wounds with allogenic keratinocytes sheets. The overall results obtained in the first 13 patients showed a good tolerance of the procedure, no anesthesiologic complication and marked improvement of the hand deformities. The long-term follow-up revealed a recurrence before 2 years in 2 hands, between 2 and 4 years in 7 hands and after 4 years in 6 hands. The conclusion is that an aggressive surgical attitude, along with an adequate intra and post-operative rehabilitation, ensures a good restoration of hand function and a satisfying delay of inevitable recurrence.

Office Management of Scaphoid Fractures

In briefA dull, deep pain in the wrist after a fall on an outstretched hand is the hallmark of a scaphoid fracture. Pain with maneuvers that stress the scaphoid can suggest fracture on physical exam. Radiographs are crucial: Determining the location, stability, and orientation of the fracture guides treatment and predicts outcome. Distal fractures and horizontally oriented fractures generally heal well and can be managed by immobilization in a shortarm thumb spica cast. Proximal fractures and vertically oriented fractures have the most morbidity, and open reduction should be considered. When prolonged immobilization is required, range-of-motion and strengthening exercises are prescribed to restore hand function after cast removal.

Office Management of Scaphoid Fractures

A dull, deep pain in the wrist after a fall on an outstretched hand is the hallmark of a scaphoid fracture. Pain with maneuvers that stress the scaphoid can suggest fracture on physical exam. Radiographs are crucial: Determining the location, stability, and orientation of the fracture guides treatment and predicts outcome. Distal fractures and horizontally oriented fractures generally heal well and can be managed by immobilization in a short-arm thumb spica cast. Proximal fractures and vertically oriented fractures have the most morbidity, and open reduction should be considered. When prolonged immobilization is required, range-of-motion and strengthening exercises are prescribed to restore hand function after cast removal.

Tendon transfers and functional electrical stimulation for restoration of hand function in spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury at the C5 and C6 level results in loss of hand function. Electrical stimulation of paralyzed muscles is one approach that has demonstrated significant capacity for restoring grasp and release function. One potential limitation of this approach is that key muscles for stimulation may have lower motor neuron damage, rendering the muscles unexcitable. We have used surgical modification of the biomechanics of the hand to overcome this limitation. Tendon transfer of paralyzed but lower motor neuron intact muscles can compensate for potential function lost owing to muscles with lower motor neuron damage. Such procedures have been performed to provide finger extension, thumb extension, finger flexion, and wrist extension. Additional surgical procedures have been performed to enhance the function provided with electrical stimulation. These are side-to-side synchronization of the finger flexor and extensor tendons, the flexor digitorium superficialis Zancolli-lasso procedure, and thumb interphalangeal joint arthrodesis. These procedures have been performed in 11 patients with C5 and C6 level spinal injuries and functional electrical stimulation neuroprostheses. In these patients, 41 different functional electrical stimulation-related procedures were performed and 38 gave the desired result after surgery. One procedure resulted in no increase or decrease in function or muscle output, and two procedures resulted in a decrease in muscle force or joint range of motion. The issues that must be considered in performing functional electrical stimulation-related tendon transfers are discussed.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of sensory reeducation following digital replantation and revascularization

Sensory recovery following digital replantation plays an important role in the restoration of hand function. Twelve patients with twenty-four replanted or revascularized digits were randomly selected to enter a program of sensory reeducation, and another 15 patients with 22 replanted or revascularized digits were selected as controls who did not receive sensory reeducation. A moving two-point discrimination and a Semmes-Weinstein pressure threshold test were evaluated for monitoring the sensory recovery. The period of sensory reeducation was 18.83 weeks on average, and the mean follow-up time was 11.94 months. The group that received sensory reeducation significantly improved to a better degree of moving two-point discrimination and Semmes-Weinstein threshold level by both univariate and multiple regression analysis. We suggest that sensory reeducation should be an integral part of the postoperative rehabilitation protocol following digital replantation and revascularization.

Effects of torsions in the wrist joint on carpal-bone behaviour and the radiotriquetral ligaments: an experimental study

The orientations of the radiotriquetral ligaments in the wrist joint suggest the role of counteracting torsions in the radiocarpal joint. This is tested in a series of kinematic experiments with three specimens, the joints being forced to rotate about the longitudinal axis of the third metacarpal. The reorientations of the marked insertion sites of the dorsal and palmar radiotriquetral ligaments are assessed and related to the individual carpal-bone movements. The three specimens react similarly to the imposed torsions: a hyperpronation is related to a dorsal flexion and a hypersupination to a palmar flexion. The dorsal radiotriquetral ligaments are highly addressed during hypersupination, but the palmar ligaments show no significant elongations during hyperpronations. The mechanism of wrist joint injuries due to trauma like a fall on the outstretched hand is poorly documented. The torsions occurring during these trauma are simulated in cadaver experiments. Large effects upon the dorsal ligaments are found in comparison to the palmar ligaments. This indicates that the palmar radiotriquetral ligaments protect the joint against hyperpronations. Planning of the restoration of hand function in the injured hand should include the different roles of these two ligaments.

The use of patterned neuromuscular stimulation to improve hand function following surgery for ulnar neuropathy

A 60-year-old man with wasting and weakness of the right hand following ulnar nerve entrapment at the elbow was referred for electrotherapy. An uluar nerve transposition had been performed 2 years previously. This had produced some improvement in nerve conduction without significantly improving hand muscle function. The right first dorsal interosseous muscle (FDI) was stimulated for 4 hours per day over a 6-week period with a stimulus pattern replicating the discharge of a single motor unit from a healthy, fatigued FDI (patterned neuromuscular stimulation or PNMS). The response was assessed using a single case design. Significant improvements in the strength and fatigue resistance of the FDI were observed, associated with improvements in general hand function. PNMS may be useful in restoring hand function in patients with muscle atrophy following entrapment neuropathy.

Functional grasp potential of the intrinsic minus hand

The functional grasp potential of a hand controlled only by extrinsic muscles or by both intrinsic and extrinsic muscles was investigated using a biomechanical model simulation. The simulation, which was based on a set of equilibrium equations, was driven by muscle-like forces. Contact with fixed objects provided external forces, which interacted with muscle forces and joint passive moments to produce finger position. It was found that functional grasps of several different sized objects could be obtained using only extrinsic muscles, but that the position of the object with respect to the hand was an important parameter. Using both intrinsic and extrinsic muscles provided additional object positions at which functional grasp could be achieved. These results could prove useful in training people using functional electrical stimulation systems to restore hand function. >

Opportunities and challenges for the clinical utilization of functional electrical stimulation.

Clinical applications of electrical stimulation for effecting change in the damaged or disabled nervous system are in their infancy. This technique is extremely powerful, because any neural structure that is electrically excitable can potentially be affected. Although early attempts to apply electrical stimulation were limited by insufficient physiological knowledge and undeveloped technology, developments over the past two decades now provide a strong base for clinical applications. Clinical systems for bladder control and respiration have been in use for many years. Some applications of FES to restore hand function and walking are in multicenter testing, whereas many others are being studied for clinical feasibility at single sites. Applications are focusing on safety and efficacy, as well as on clinical outcome measures to address the issues posed by the regulatory and reimbursement processes. As clinical systems become more routine, issues of multiple system applications will need to be addressed. Present and future applications of functional electrical stimulation may be expected to significantly enhance independence and improve the quality of life for individuals with central nervous system dysfunction.

Neuromuscular stimulation in spinal cord injury: I: Restoration of functional movement of the extremities.

The spinal cord injured patient has been the focus of clinical and research efforts to restore functional movement and obtain therapeutic benefits by electric stimulation of upper-motor-neuron paralyzed muscles. Our review articles treat developments in this field from 1983 to 1990. Efforts have been directed to restoring hand function, standing, and walking (covered in part I), as well as prevention of secondary complications through ventilatory function, bladder function, and achieving therapeutic effects of electric stimulation (covered in Part II). The technology for hand function, standing, and walking is used primarily in the research laboratory, as clinical applications are minimal. Much work remains to be done to solve the difficult problems associated with applying this promising technology to spinal cord injury.

Sensory recovery following digital replantation

The recovery of sensibility following digital replantation is essential in the restoration of hand function. We reviewed 12 series of digital replantations between 1977 and 1989. Three hundred sixty-seven fingers and 87 thumbs were successfully replanted. Mean age was 32.5 years. Mean follow-up was 33.5 months. Mean static two-point discrimination (S2PD) was 9.3 mm in clean thumbs vs. 12.1 mm in crush/avulsion thumb replantations. Mean S2PD was 8 mm in clean finger vs. 15 mm in crush/avulsion finger replantations. Overall mean S2PD was 11 mm in thumb and 12 mm in finger replantations. Sixty-one percent of replanted thumbs and 54% of replanted fingers regained useful S2PD (less than 15 mm or greater than or equal to S3 +). Factors that influenced digital sensibility following replantation included patient's age, level and mechanism of injury, digital blood flow, cold intolerance, and postoperative sensory reeducation. Recovery of sensibility in the replanted digit is comparable to simple nerve repair and to nerve grafting techniques. Further emphasis should be on elucidating the mechanism of cold intolerance, which was a significant complaint for most replanted digits. The universal practice of postoperative sensory reeducation will continue to improve digital sensibility following replantation.