Rest Of South America Research Articles

Multiscale CO Budget Estimates Across South America: Quantifying Local Sources and Long Range Transport

AbstractSouth America is a large continent situated mostly in the Southern Hemisphere (SH) with complex topography and diverse emissions sources. However, the atmospheric chemistry of this region has been historically understudied. Here, we employ the Multi‐Scale Infrastructure for Chemistry and Aerosols, a novel global circulation model with regional refinement capabilities and full chemistry, to explore the sources and distribution of the carbon monoxide (CO) tropospheric column in South America during 2019, and also to assess the effect that South American primary emissions have over the rest of the world. Most of the CO over South America can be explained either by non‐methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) secondary chemical production or by biomass burning emissions, with biomass burning as the main explanation for the variability in CO. Biomass burning in Central Africa is a relevant contributor to CO in all of the continent, including the southern tip. Biogenic emissions play a dual role in CO concentrations: they provide volatile organic compounds that contribute to the secondary CO production, but they also destroy OH, which limits the chemical production and destruction of CO. As a net effect, the lifetime of CO is extended to ∼120 days on average over the Amazon, while still being in the range of 30–60 days in the rest of South America.

A new species of Hannemania (Trombidiformes: Leeuwenhoekiidae) parasitizing the endemic and endangered frog, Atelognathus reverberii (Anura: Batrachylidae) from Argentinian Patagonia

Chigger mites of the genus Hannemania Oudemans 1911 (Acari: Leeuwenhoekiidae) are subcutaneous parasites of amphibians. To date, 28 species have been reported from the Americas and Oceania. In Argentina, only six species have been recorded: H. achalai Alzuet & Mauri 1987, H. argentina Lahille 1927, H. edwardsi Sambon 1928, H. hobdayi Sambon 1928, H. minor Alzuet & Mauri 1987 and, H. samboni Ewing 1931. Those species were recorded parasitizing frogs of the genera Bufo Garsault (Bufonidae), Hypsiboas Wagler (Hylidae), Leptodactylus Fitzinger (Leptodactylidae), Nannophryne Günther (Bufonidae), Odontophrynus Reinhardt & Lütken (Odontophrynidae) and, Pleurodema Tschudi (Leptodactylidae). Most of these records are from the northern, northeastern and Andean regions in Argentina. In Argentinean Patagonia, the Meseta de Somuncurá is a protected natural area of great biological interest due to the strong endemism of fauna and flora (at least 14 endemic species). Only, H. hobdayi and H. samboni have been described from Argentinean Patagonia. The endemic Laguna Raimunda frog, Atelognathus reverberii (Cei) (Anura: Batrachylidae), is an endangered species with a distribution in the semi-permanent volcanic clay lagoons of Meseta de Somuncurá. The ecological characteristics of A. reverberii populations make it vulnerable to habitat degradation and parasitic diseases. This study aimed to describe a potentially new species of Hannemania collected as a parasite of A. reverberii in Meseta de Somuncurá, Río Negro, Argentina. A sample of 11 mites was cleared in lactophenol solution, slide-mounted in Hoyer’s medium, and observed using an optical microscope with Phase contrast and DIC. The mites have a palpal formula that differs from those of the previously described Hannemania species from Argentina and the rest of South America. They also differ from the related species in the number of eupathidia on the genu of leg I (σ) and the number and arrangement of dorsal opisthosomal setae. We consider that the species morphological differences and geographic isolation are sufficient to propose a novel species of the genus Hannemania. Herein, we present the first record of Hannemania parasitizing A. reverberii. As this amphibian is considered endangered, this novel species of Hannemania is probably threatened. This study contributes to the knowledge of this parasitic mite. In future studies, it will be necessary to consider molecular data of Argentinian Hannemania species to achieve a better understanding of the systematics of the genus.

Bridging macroecology and macroevolution in the radiation of sigmodontine rodents.

Investigations of phenotypic disparity across geography often ignore macroevolutionary processes. As a corollary, the random null expectations to which disparity is compared and interpreted may be unrealistic. We tackle this issue by representing, in geographical space, distinct processes of phenotypic evolution underlying ecological disparity. Under divergent natural selection, assemblages in a given region should have empirical disparity higher than expected under an evolutionarily oriented null model, whereas the opposite may indicate constraints on phenotypic evolution. We gathered phylogenies, biogeographic distributions, and data on the skull morphology of sigmodontine rodents to discover which regions of the Neotropics were more influenced by divergent, neutral, or constrained phenotypic evolution. We found that regions with higher disparity than expected by the evolutionary-oriented null model, in terms of both size and shape, were concentrated in the Atlantic Forest, suggesting a larger role for divergent natural selection there. Phenotypic disparity in the rest of South America, mainly the Amazon basin, northeastern Brazil, and Southern Andes, was constrained-lower than predicted by the evolutionary model. We also demonstrated equivalence between the disparity produced by randomization-based null models and constrained-evolution null models. Therefore, including evolutionary simulations into the null modeling framework used in ecophylogenetics can strengthen inferences on the processes underlying phenotypic evolution.

A hybrid neural network-based technique to improve the flow forecasting of physical and data-driven models: Methodology and case studies in Andean watersheds

Study regionThe present study was conducted in the Machángara Alto and Chulco rivers, which belong to the Paute basin in the provinces of Azuay and Cañar in southern Ecuador. Study focusAndean watersheds are important providers of water supply for human consumption, food supply, energy generation, industrial water use, and ecosystem services and functions for many cities in Ecuador and in the rest of South America. In these regions, accurate quantification and prediction of water flow is challenging, mainly due to significant climatic variability and sparse monitoring networks. In the context of flow forecasting, this work evaluates the accuracy of two physical models (WEAP and GR2M) and two models based on artificial neural networks (ANN) that use meteorological data as input variables. Then, a hybrid technique is proposed, using the time series generated by the individual models as inputs of a new ANN. This approach aims to increase the accuracy of the simulated flow by combining and exploiting the information provided by physical and data-driven models. To assess the performance of the proposed methodology, statistical analyses are conducted for two case studies in the Andean region, where comparative analyses are performed for the individual models and the hybrid technique. New hydrological insightsThe results indicate that the proposed technique is able to improve the individual performance of physical and ANN-based models, yielding good results in the calibration and validation stages for the two case studies. Specifically, increases in NSE were observed from 0.64 to 0.99 in the MachÁngara Alto river, and from 0.88 to 0.99 in the Chulco river. Higher accuracy of the hybrid technique was observed for all evaluation criteria considered in the analyses. The performance of the hybrid technique was also reflected in terms of water supply and demand, suggesting possible applications for the regional management of water resources, where accurate flow predictions are of utmost importance.

Zika Virus-Derived E-DIII Protein Displayed on Immunologically Optimized VLPs Induces Neutralizing Antibodies without Causing Enhancement of Dengue Virus Infection.

Zika virus (ZIKV) is a flavivirus similar to Dengue virus (DENV) in terms of transmission and clinical manifestations, and usually both viruses are found to co-circulate. ZIKV is usually transmitted by mosquitoes bites, but may also be transmitted by blood transfusion, via the maternal–foetal route, and sexually. After 2015, when the most extensive outbreak of ZIKV had occurred in Brazil and subsequently spread throughout the rest of South America, it became evident that ZIKV infection during the first trimester of pregnancy was associated with microcephaly and other neurological complications in newborns. As a result, the development of a vaccine against ZIKV became an urgent goal. A major issue with DENV vaccines, and therefore likely also with ZIKV vaccines, is the induction of antibodies that fail to neutralize the virus properly and cause antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) of the infection instead. It has previously been shown that antibodies against the third domain of the envelope protein (EDIII) induces optimally neutralizing antibodies with no evidence for ADE for other viral strains. Therefore, we generated a ZIKV vaccine based on the EDIII domain displayed on the immunologically optimized Cucumber mosaic virus (CuMVtt) derived virus-like particles (VLPs) formulated in dioleoyl phosphatidylserine (DOPS) as adjuvant. The vaccine induced high levels of specific IgG after a single injection. The antibodies were able to neutralise ZIKV without enhancing infection by DENV in vitro. Thus, the here described vaccine based on EDIII displayed on VLPs was able to stimulate production of antibodies specifically neutralizing ZIKV without potentially enhancing disease caused by DENV.

Echinococcus Granulosus in the Endangered Patagonian Huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus)

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a zoonotic parasitic disease associated with Echinococcus granulosus. The parasite is maintained by domestic and wild canids as definitive hosts with several ungulate species as intermediate hosts in domestic and peridomestic transmission cycles. In Chile, CE is endemic, and the role of livestock and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) in the cycle and the accidental infection of humans are widely documented at rural sites. However, the role of wild herbivores in wild cycles or the potential transmission of CE from livestock is still unknown in Chile and the rest of South America. We used molecular techniques to describe CE infecting a Patagonian huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) in Cerro Castillo National Reserve (Aysén region, Chile). We make inferences about the risk of disease spillover from sympatric domestic and wild species. The DNA-based molecular analysis revealed that the huemul was infected with E. granulosus G1 genotype, sharing haplotypes with other G1 samples collected from sheep (Ovis aries) and cattle (Bos taurus) worldwide. Geographic overlap between sheep and huemul populations in the reserve likely facilitates parasite spillover into wild deer populations, with shepherd or stray dogs and wild foxes (Lycalopex culpaeus) potentially acting as bridging hosts between livestock and the endangered huemul. Further studies are warranted to understand the implications of E. granulosus for huemul conservation throughout the Chilean Patagonia.

Las razones de por qué Chile debe detener la importación del abejorro comercial Bombus terrestris (Linnaeus) y comenzar a controlarlo

The global pollination crisis is not only produced by loss of pollinators but also by their homogenization, both processes caused by humans. This crisis impacts the persistence of many native plants species worldwide. In this document we analyze the ecological impacts that warrant the prohibition of new income of commercial bumblebee, Bombus terrestris to Chile. This species is highly invasive, it has been banned in other countries, but in Chile its entry is allowed since 1997. Thousands of colonies and fertilized queens entered the country every year and expand throughout the rest of South America. We give eleven reasons to stop B. terrestris entry to Chile and start controlling it. We justify these reasons based on work done both in the country and outside of it. At the same time, through the conclusions, we mentioned what should be the steps to followed regarding the prohibition B. terrestris entry to Chile.

WRESTLING WITH MACHADO

8 1 R W R E S T L I N G W I T H M A C H A D O I L A N S T A V A N S Susan Sontag, in an essay called ‘‘Afterlives’’ published in The New Yorker in 1990, called Joaquin Maria Machado de Assis, who, along with journalist Euclides da Cunha, was Brazil’s most famous nineteenth-century literary figure, ‘‘the greatest writer ever produced in Latin America.’’ That’s high praise, but it’s also bombastic and rather shallow. The greatest writer? One could easily come up with a half-dozen other authors from the region equal in greatness who were already essential when Sontag published her appreciation . Jorge Luis Borges, whom Sontag places ‘‘second best,’’ is far more consistent in style, and his worldview has been much more influential. Gabriel García Márquez turned lo real maravilloso , what in English is known as Magical Realism, into an international vogue. And literature isn’t a competition. Who is ‘‘the greatest writer’’ in the United States? The question itself is preposterous. A related issue with Sontag’s valuation is that Machado is almost totally unknown within Latin America. Borges, who seems to have read everything (though, by his own confession, not One Hundred Years of Solitude), doesn’t mention him anywhere. The apathy isn’t altogether Machado’s fault. Brazil occupies a liminal space in the 8 2 S T A V A N S Y hemisphere’s map: in square miles, it is a mammoth country, by far the largest in Latin America, yet its language and heritage can be traced to imperial Portugal, which, in the context of Europe, has always sat in an awkward, tangential position. In the Americas this makes it an anomaly and turns Brazil into an archipelago of foreignness. Sontag is not unaware of this marginalization, but she manages to twist that, too. In her New Yorker essay, she writes that Brazil has always been ‘‘regarded by the rest of South America – Hispanophone South America – with a good deal of condescension and even racism.’’ Again, untrue (and where does she get that information?). Indi√erence, yes, maybe even disdain, but not condescension – and racism even less so. Brazil’s ethnic tapestry is similar to that of some of its neighbors, such as Colombia and Venezuela. On the other hand, Sontag is right when she argues that ‘‘a writer of one of those countries’’ (meaning Spanishspeaking Latin America) ‘‘is far likelier to know any of the European literatures or literature in English than to know the literature of Brazil, whereas Brazilian writers are acutely aware of Spanish-American literatures.’’ Again, Borges is the prime example : he barely noticed Machado, and to a large extent that goes for Brazil in general. Only a couple of Borges’s stories mention it, ‘‘Emma Zunz’’ among them. On the other hand, almost anything Anglo-Saxon, from Beowulf to Shakespeare to Robert Louis Stevenson , Oscar Wilde, G. K. Chesterton, and even Rudyard Kipling, fascinated him. Machado in his own right was utterly oblivious to Spanish-language writers. Don Quixote, considered to be the first modern novel, hardly dents his repertoire of references, of which there are many. As far as he was concerned, Argentina, Peru, Uruguay, and other countries in the area might as well have been on Mars. Nowadays many Spanish-language Latin Americans avidly read Brazilian writers. Clarice Lispector, for example, has been a staple of the continent’s literary canon since the 1960s. Indeed, in the English-speaking world, there was a time when she was described as ‘‘the Brazilian Virginia Woolf.’’ Not long ago a Buenos Aires publication referred to Woolf as ‘‘Bloomsbury’s Clarice Lispector,’’ prime evidence that the tide had changed. Jorge Amado is another icon (or at least he was in the 1980s). And while not a maker of W R E S T L I N G W I T H M A C H A D O 8 3 R artistic gems by any stretch, Paulo Coelho, known for such novels as The Alchemist and The Zahir, is a staple in airports, pharmacies, and supermarkets all over Latin America...

Pigmented glazed ceramic roof tiles in Brazil: Thermal and optical properties related to solar reflectance index

Urbanization and the resulting concentration of people in cities has led to the emergence of Urban Heat Islands (UHI), which is associated with several problems. One strategy for UHI mitigation is the use of cool coatings for pavements and buildings, for instance, on roof tiles. Ceramic roof tiles are widely used in Brazil and in the rest of South America, but they have not been adequately studied regarding their thermal emittance and solar radiation reflectance. These two properties can be used to determine whether or not a roof tile coating can be classed as “cool”, according to the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification. In this paper, the solar reflectance, thermal emittance and Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) index were determined for “Portuguese” and “American” colored glazed roof tiles, mostly produced in Brazil. Nineteen glazed roof tiles (from four different producers) with different colors were studied according the LEED certification. The thermal emittance was determined using a portable emissometer and the reflectance spectral curves were measured using a UV–Vis-NIR spectrophotometer. All measurements were performed according to the ASTM standards. The colorimetric coordinates in the visible range (for the D65 illuminant) were determined to evaluate the relationship between the luminous reflectance factor (Y) and the SRI. The optical behavior of the colored glazes for the full range of the solar spectrum was determined using the Kubelka-Munk (K-M) model and the relationship between the absorption (K) and scattering (S) coefficients. The results show that most of the colored glazed tiles did not meet the 2013 LEED requirement, that is, SRI ≥ 39 for roof tiles with a steep slope. A polynomial relationship between the Y factor and the SRI was found (R2 value > 0.95), therefore the tile colors that would probably not qualify for SRI certification could be estimated. The K-M analysis showed that for some glazes there was a high absorption of radiation in the near infrared region, suggesting that the pigments used for these glazes do not exhibit cool properties. Therefore, cool pigments with higher reflectance should be used to improve the performance of the glazes with a low SRI.

The Trial of Francisco Bilbao and Its Role in the Foundation of Latin American Journalism

This article discusses a little-known historical event that created the conditions for and represents the power dynamics within the Latin American media as we know it today. The 1844 trial of Francisco Bilbao had a direct impact on the development of the free press in Chile and, subsequently, in the rest of South America. Bilbao’s trial, one of the most talked about events in the subcontinent at the time, brought the liberal journalist before a conservative Catholic court, which fined him for the publication of an antireligious piece, “Sociabilidad Chilena.” The response of his peers to this trial changed the outlook of the publishing industry in Latin America.

First evidence of pre-Hispanic dentistry in South America – Insights from Cusco, Peru

Intentional dental modification (IDM) derived from archeological or ethnographic contexts has been extensively documented across the globe. Despite the wealth of information on IDM for personal ornamentation and ritualistic purposes, evidence of IDM for therapeutic reasons among early Native Americans is poorly known and limited to a handful of cases. We report two upper canines from two pre-Hispanic individuals dated to the Late Horizon Period from Cusco (Peru), each showing a conical perforation on its incisal surface. Analyses were performed using traditional radiography, computed tomography and scanning electron microscopy. The depth and symmetrical location of the perforations at the center of the crown suggest that these two teeth were artificially drilled, rather than affected by taphonomic factors. The poor oral health of the individuals, the location of the perforations on the incisal surface, and evidence of intentional manipulation of the pulp chambers (as supported by their overall morphology and presence of striations and deep marks along the walls of the perforations) provide a strong case for the occurrence of prehistoric dentistry in the New World. The two canine teeth reported here represent the first pre-Columbian examples of IDM likely performed to ameliorate a dental pathology (presumably associated with the infection of the dental pulp) found in Peru and in the rest of South America.

Mr Mawson's fossils

Abstract Joseph Mawson, a nineteenth-century British railway engineer and businessman in Brazil, discovered fossils from the Cretaceous of Bahia that were described by E. D. Cope and Arthur Smith Woodward. A biographical outline of Mawson is presented. Mawson's discoveries (especially the giant coelacanth fish Mawsonia , named after him by ASW) are interpreted today in the light of modern geological investigations. Mawsonia apparently lived in fluvial, lacustrine and brackish-water habitats in western Gondwana at the time South America separated from Africa. From the Late Jurassic until the Barremian, Mawsonia was widespread across western Gondwana, but its Aptian–Cenomanian records in South America are restricted to northeastern Brazil (including the Borborema tectonic province and adjacent areas to its north). In contrast, Mawsonia remained widespread in the Aptian–Cenomanian of Africa. Recently published data suggest that northeastern Brazil was still contiguous with Africa in the Aptian/Albian, although it was probably separated from the rest of South America by an epicontinental seaway that apparently followed an unconventional course across the Brazilian interior rather than along the present-day coastline. Aptian–Cenomanian records of Mawsonia and other non-marine taxa (including tetrapods) in northeastern Brazil may therefore represent ‘African’ rather than ‘South American’ biotas.

Draft Genome Sequences of 33 Salmonella enterica Clinical and Wildlife Isolates from Chile.

Salmonella enterica causes health problem worldwide. The relationships among strains that are from the same serotype but different hosts, countries, and continents remain elusive. Few genome sequences are available from S. enterica isolates from South America. Therefore, we sequenced the genomes of 33 strains from diverse sources isolated in Chile and determined that they were of different serotypes. These genomes will improve phylogenetic analysis of Salmonella strains from Chile and the rest of South America.

Intra-Regional Spillovers in South America: Is Brazil Systemic after All?

Shocks stemming from Brazil - the large neighbor in South America - have historically been a source of concern for policy-makers in other countries of the region. This paper studies the importance of Brazil’s influence on its neighboring economies, documenting trade linkages over the last two decades and quantifying spillover effects in a Vector Auto Regression setting. While trade linkages with Brazil are significant for the Southern Cone countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay), they are very weak for others. Consistent with this evidence, econometric results show that, while the Southern Cone economies (especially Mercosur’s members) are vulnerable to output shocks from Brazil, the rest of South America is not. Spillovers can take two different forms: the transmission of Brazil-specific shocks and the amplification of global shocks—through their impact on Brazil’s output. Finally, we also find suggestive evidence that depreciations of Brazil’s currency may not have significant impact on output of its key trading partners.

Intra-Regional Spillovers in South America: Is Brazil Systemic After All?

Shocks stemming from Brazil - the large neighbor in South America - have historically been a source of concern for policy-makers in other countries of the region. This paper studies the importance of Brazil’s influence on its neighboring economies, documenting trade linkages over the last two decades and quantifying spillover effects in a Vector Auto Regression setting. While trade linkages with Brazil are significant for the Southern Cone countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay), they are very weak for others. Consistent with this evidence, econometric results show that, while the Southern Cone economies (especially Mercosur’s members) are vulnerable to output shocks from Brazil, the rest of South America is not. Spillovers can take two different forms: the transmission of Brazil-specific shocks and the amplification of global shocks—through their impact on Brazil’s output. Finally, we also find suggestive evidence that depreciations of Brazil’s currency may not have significant impact on output of its key trading partners.

Neotropical Eois (Lepidoptera: Geometridae): Checklist, Biogeography, Diversity, and Description Patterns

Abstract The moth genus Eois Hübner (Lepidoptera: Geometridae: Larentiinae) comprises 254 validly described species, 211 of them (83%) occurring in the Neotropical region, 12% in the Asian-Australian region, and 5% in Africa. A checklist of Neotropical Eois is provided and some taxonomic changes are made. Aplogompha noctilaria (Schaus) is excluded from the genus, and Eois bermellada (Dognin) and Eois fragilis (Warren) are transferred to the genus. Further changes include Eois cellulata (Prout) stat. rev., Eois ambarilla (Dognin) stat. rev., and Eois telegraphica Prout stat. rev. By far, the majority of Eois species (82%) were described between 1891 and 1920; approximately half of all species by just two authors. Within the Neotropical region, the majority of species (55%) were described from the tropical Andes (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia), followed by Central America and the Caribbean (28%), and the rest of South America (17%). Large regions such as the Amazon basin, eastern South America, but also northern Peru are heavily underrepresented. Regional diversity studies provide evidence that the wet tropical Andes are the diversity hotspot of Eois. From a forested elevational gradient (1,020–2,670 m above sea level) in southeastern Ecuador, 154 morphospecies are currently known, with only ≈12% of them described. Regional species richness in Central America is lower (Costa Rica, 66 observed morphospecies along a gradient from 40 to 2,730 m; ≈29% described). Total richness of the genus is estimated to be >1,000 species in the Neotropical region. R the low proportions of described species only partly recur in other groups of Neotropical geometrid moths, their number may exceed 19,000 species. A taxonomic revision of Eois will be a prerequisite for comparison of ecological data from different regions.

Cover Essay: Gleaming Power of the Andes, Sapped

The featured artist in this issue of EcoHealth is Roberto Mamani Mamani, the well-known Bolivian artist who fuses indigenous imagery with brief references to colonial invasion and modern Bolivian culture. His use of flowing mountainscapes and vibrant colors is straight from the Aymara imagery that his grandmother taught him, the roots from which he finds power. Mamani Mamani revels in this power of the Andes. In life, he concludes each email or letter with a plea for us to feel this power. He dresses as, and identifies with, his indigenous origins. In his art, he depicts vivid buttresses of Andean rock, which dominate his work and push human influence to the side. He paints women in indigenous dress soaking up the Andean sun that broils the sky to the point of apocalypse. In our cover picture, he sculpts thick wedges of glacial ice on Illimani, the peak that dominates the La Paz skyline: slopes of snow that seem to reach out magnetically and lock the sun in embrace. Mamani Mamani is a purist in his art. He sees the Andean Altiplano as a landscape where nature dominates people. How else could something so dramatic exist? In ‘‘Madre Ilimani,’’ he depicts his favorite mountain with impressionistic accuracy so that it provides a curious counterpoint to the dominating image of the sun. The view is one that he sees every day, yet the hazy sprawl of La Paz, city of a million and the highest capital in the world, is striking in its absence here. In Mamani Mamani’s mind, the city becomes just a few brightly colored houses nestled in the bosom of the landscape. On a winter’s day, as the smoke settles thick over the city, it’s possible to stand on the edge of town, look across at Illimani, and see La Paz just as it’s painted here. In a certain light, as the sun glints over the moonscape mountains, the snowcaps rise and float eerily above the land, soaring like Illimani’s namesake golden eagle. A trick of perspective mingles haze and rock to magnify the mountain’s importance. It turns La Paz into a thin smear—a modern insult to Andean purity. Here is where reality and vision part ways. Just like the rest of South America, La Paz is on a long-term growth spurt as most Bolivians seek the comforts of 21st century life. Planes connect land-locked Bolivia to a growing network of countries. Traditional and modern life merge in a complex cultural dynamic. The result is a modern compromise, one where just as Mamani Mamani sends emails in Aymara and flies his pictures to galleries around the world, the first indigenous President of Bolivia is elected. In postmodern Bolivia, the Indian roots that Mamani Mamani proudly espouses are a national gift to be treasured, where once they were eschewed or outright oppressed. Similar compromises dominate the land. We may view the Andes as a majestic wilderness outside our own influence, but in the Andean lowlands we’ve crafted a new landscape of deforestation and agricultural change. With shifting populations and agricultural pressure, we’ve created our own niches, nestling like a boil in this bosom. These niches bring wealth just as they bring poverty; health just as they bring disease (see Polop, 2010 in this issue of EcoHealth). Even in the high Andes, far beyond the treeline, our influence saps the gleaming power that nurtures Mamani Mamani. Anthropogenic climate change clips the wings of the Illimani glaciers. It creates new corridors along which invasive plants and animals creep, joining one valley with the next, even sharing disease over the cusp (Seimon et al. 2007). Our wilderness myth crumbles, even as we seek EcoHealth 7, 267–268, 2010 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-010-0361-7

Patagonia: A paleozoic continent adrift?

The evolution of Patagonia as an independent and exotic microcontinent from the rest of South America was a recurrent hypothesis since the XIX century, reaching notoriety during the discussion times of continental drift theory. The arrival of plate tectonics triggered different hypotheses, some of them with fixist interpretations that consider Patagonia as an autochthonous part of Gondwana, and others more mobilistic that postulate an allochthonous origin. After several decades, although some consensus exists among those hypotheses that postulate its allochthony, there is no agreement in its boundaries, subduction, accretion, and final amalgamation times to the Gondwana supercontinent. In this review the different magmatic belts are analyzed, their deformation and metamorphism, the associated sedimentary basins, as well as the existing geochronologic controls. Aware that important uncertainties still remain, a new model is proposed with two magmatic arcs: a western belt that was active from the Devonian to the mid Carboniferous, and a northern one partially coeval that led to the collision of Patagonia against the southwestern margin of Gondwana in the Lower Permian. It is hypothesized that the termination of the western magmatic arc activity was linked to the collision of the Antarctic Peninsula and associated terranes. The reconstruction of the plate tectonic history of Patagonia during the Paleozoic shows the existence of several episodes of fragmentation and rifting, convergence and accretion, renewed periods of rifting and reaccretion to the Gondwana margin. Those processes were intrinsic to the formation of Terra Australis orogen, controlled by the absolute motion of the Gondwana supercontinent and guided by successive global plate reorganizations.

Apparently normal frequency of congenital anomalies in the highly polluted town of Cubatão, Brazil.

Anencephaly is Suspected to cluster in the municipality of Cubatão (Brazil), and is attributed to industrial pollution. We surveyed malformations prospectively in 10,000 births, in 3 consecutive series, corresponding to 3 maternity hospital in Cubatão, under working definitions and norms taken from the ECLAMC (Latin American Collaborative Study of Congenital Malformations). The sample from Cubatão had a higher proportion of black racial ancestry, and lower frequencies for stillbirths and for immediate neonatal death, than in the rest of South America. The birth prevalence of malformations varied between the 3 hospitals in Cubatão, due to differences in ascertainment of minor defects. A higher-than-expected prevalence rate in Cubatão was observed only for postaxial polydactyly, probably due to a higher proportion of black racial ancestry, while lower-than-expected rates were obtained for congenital dislocation of the hip, and for babies with multiple congenital anomalies patterns, both of them attributed to underascertainment of minor defects. These observations do not support the suspicion of an elevated birth prevalence rate for anencephaly, neural tube defects, or any other major congenital malformation in Cubatão.

Epidemiology of neural tube defects in South America.

We present data from the Latin American Collaborative Study of Congenital Malformations (ECLAMC) on prevalence rates and etiologic factor associations in neural tube defects. Two series of data are analyzed: the A series, including 740,139 consecutive infants born in the 1967-1979 period suitable for secular trend analysis and case-control study of risk factors; and the B series, including 255,834 consecutive stillborn and liveborn infants of the 1980-1982 period suitable for prevalence rate analysis. Anencephaly was registered in 6.0/10,000 births, A spina bifida aperta in 6.2/10,000 births, and cephalocele in 2.4/10,000 births. A stable secular trend was observed for the frequency of all three neural tube defect types. Spina bifida was more frequent in Chile than in the rest of South America. No differences in prevalence rates were seen between tropical and non tropical areas. Parental consanguinity and environmental prenatal factors including maternal illnesses, drug intake, and radiation exposure were found in association with anencephaly and spina bifida.