Responses In Auditory Cortex Research Articles

Individualized post-operative prediction of cochlear implantation outcomes in children with prelingual deafness using functional near-infrared spectroscopy.

The goal of this study was to develop an objective measure and predictor of cochlear implantation (CI) outcomes using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) for young children with prelingual deafness. Sound-evoked hemodynamic responses were recorded from auditory and language-related cortical regions of 47 child CI recipients (35.47 ± 17.24 months of age) using fNIRS shortly after CI activation (0.26 ± 0.30 months). There were four sound conditions (natural speech, instrumental music, multi-speaker babble noise, and speech-in-noise). Post-CI auditory and verbal communication performance was evaluated using clinical questionnaires with caretakers. Both classification and individualized regression models were constructed to predict post-CI behavioral improvement from fNIRS data using support vector machine (SVM) learning algorithms. Auditory cortical responses shortly after CI hearing onset yielded highly accurate prediction of behavioral development in young CI children. For classification models, optimal prediction was achieved using cortical responses to two or more sound conditions, with the highest accuracy of 98.20% (precision = 98.17%, sensitivity = 98.96%, area under the curve of the receiver operating characteristic curve = 99.61%) obtained with the combination of speech, noise, and music stimuli. Similarly, for regression models, best prediction of individual development was achieved using three (highest r = 0.919) or four (r = 0.966) sound conditions. The predictability of cortical responses far outperformed (Cohen's d: 18.56) that of the collection of audiological and demographic parameters (classification accuracy: 0.62) under the same SVM algorithms and could not benefit from the inclusion of the latter. Machine learning models using auditory cortical hemodynamic responses shortly after CI activation were able to predict individualized post-CI behavioral improvement in children with prelingual deafness. Level 5.

Direct piriform-to-auditory cortical projections shape auditory-olfactory integration.

In a real-world environment, the brain must integrate information from multiple sensory modalities, including the auditory and olfactory systems. However, little is known about the neuronal circuits governing how odors influence and modulate sound processing. Here, we investigated the mechanisms underlying auditory-olfactory integration using anatomical, electrophysiological, and optogenetic approaches, focusing on the auditory cortex as a key locus for cross-modal integration. First, retrograde and anterograde viral tracing strategies revealed a direct projection from the piriform cortex to the auditory cortex. Next, using in vivo electrophysiological recordings of neuronal activity in the auditory cortex of awake male or female mice, we found that odors modulate auditory cortical responses to sound. Finally, we used in vivo optogenetic manipulations during electrophysiology to demonstrate that olfactory modulation in auditory cortex, specifically, odor-driven enhancement of sound responses, depends on direct input from the piriform cortex. Together, our results identify a novel role of piriform-to-auditory cortical circuitry in shaping olfactory modulation in the auditory cortex, shedding new light on the neuronal mechanisms underlying auditory-olfactory integration.Significance Statement All living organisms exist within multisensory environments, yet there is a lack in our understanding of how the brain integrates multisensory information. This work highlights a direct piriform-to-auditory cortical circuit governing auditory-olfactory integration. Our results shed new light on a relatively understudied area of multisensory research, promising a more robust understanding of how animals and humans perceive and interact within complex environments.

A new function of offset response in the primate auditory cortex: marker of temporal integration

Offset responses are traditionally viewed as indicators of sound cessation. Here, we investigate offset responses to auditory click trains, examining how they are modulated by inter-click intervals (ICIs) and train duration. Using extracellular recordings and electrocorticography (ECoG) in non-human primates, alongside electroencephalography (EEG) in humans, we show that offset responses are significantly influenced by both ICI and train length, thereby establishing them as markers of temporal integration. We introduce the concept of the ‘Neuronal Integrative Window’ (NIW), defined as the temporal span during which neurons integrate stimuli to produce or modulate the temporal integration signal. Our data reveal that on the neuronal level, the auditory cortex (AC) exhibits a more expansive NIW than the medial geniculate body (MGB), integrating stimuli over longer durations and showing a preference for larger ICIs. Furthermore, our results indicate that offset responses could serve as potential biomarkers for neurological and psychiatric conditions, highlighted by their sensitivity to pharmacological modulation with ketamine. This study advances our understanding of auditory temporal processing and proposes a novel approach for assessing and monitoring brain health.

Differential Encoding of Two-Tone Harmonics in the Male and Female Mouse Auditory Cortex.

Harmonics are an integral part of music, speech, and vocalizations of animals. Since the rest of the auditory environment is primarily made up of nonharmonic sounds, the auditory system needs to perceptually separate the above two kinds of sounds. In mice, harmonics, generally with two-tone components (two-tone harmonic complexes, TTHCs), form an important component of vocal communication. Communication by pups during isolation from the mother and by adult males during courtship elicits typical behaviors in female mice-dams and adult courting females, respectively. Our study shows that the processing of TTHC is specialized in mice providing neural basis for perceptual differences between tones and TTHCs and also nonharmonic sounds. Investigation of responses in the primary auditory cortex (Au1) from in vivo extracellular recordings and two-photon Ca2+ imaging of excitatory and inhibitory neurons to TTHCs exhibit enhancement, suppression, or no-effect with respect to tones. Irrespective of neuron type, harmonic enhancement is maximized, and suppression is minimized when the fundamental frequencies (F 0) match the neuron's best fundamental frequency (BF0). Sex-specific processing of TTHC is evident from differences in the distributions of neurons' best frequency (BF) and best fundamental frequency (BF0) in single units, differences in harmonic suppressed cases re-BF0, independent of neuron types, and from pairwise noise correlations among excitatory and parvalbumin inhibitory interneurons. Furthermore, TTHCs elicit a higher response compared with two-tone nonharmonics in females, but not in males. Thus, our study shows specialized neural processing of TTHCs over tones and nonharmonics, highlighting local network specialization among different neuronal types.

Neurophysiological evidence of sensory prediction errors driving speech sensorimotor adaptation.

The human sensorimotor system has a remarkable ability to quickly and efficiently learn movements from sensory experience. A prominent example is sensorimotor adaptation, learning that characterizes the sensorimotor system's response to persistent sensory errors by adjusting future movements to compensate for those errors. Despite being essential for maintaining and fine-tuning motor control, mechanisms underlying sensorimotor adaptation remain unclear. A component of sensorimotor adaptation is implicit (i.e., the learner is unaware of the learning process) which has been suggested to result from sensory prediction errors-the discrepancies between predicted sensory consequences of motor commands and actual sensory feedback. However, to date no direct neurophysiological evidence that sensory prediction errors drive adaptation has been demonstrated. Here, we examined prediction errors via magnetoencephalography (MEG) imaging of the auditory cortex (n = 34) during sensorimotor adaptation of speech to altered auditory feedback, an entirely implicit adaptation task. Specifically, we measured how speaking-induced suppression (SIS)--a neural representation of auditory prediction errors--changed over the trials of the adaptation experiment. SIS refers to the suppression of auditory cortical response to speech onset (in particular, the M100 response) to self-produced speech when compared to the response to passive listening to identical playback of that speech. SIS was reduced (reflecting larger prediction errors) during the early learning phase compared to the initial unaltered feedback phase. Furthermore, reduction in SIS positively correlated with behavioral adaptation extents, suggesting that larger prediction errors were associated with more learning. In contrast, such a reduction in SIS was not found in a control experiment in which participants heard unaltered feedback and thus did not adapt. In addition, in some participants who reached a plateau in the late learning phase, SIS increased (reflecting smaller prediction errors), demonstrating that prediction errors were minimal when there was no further adaptation. Together, these findings provide the first neurophysiological evidence for the hypothesis that prediction errors drive human sensorimotor adaptation.

Vagus nerve stimulation recruits the central cholinergic system to enhance perceptual learning.

Perception can be refined by experience, up to certain limits. It is unclear whether perceptual limits are absolute or could be partially overcome via enhanced neuromodulation and/or plasticity. Recent studies suggest that peripheral nerve stimulation, specifically vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), can alter neural activity and augment experience-dependent plasticity, although little is known about central mechanisms recruited by VNS. Here we developed an auditory discrimination task for mice implanted with a VNS electrode. VNS applied during behavior gradually improved discrimination abilities beyond the level achieved by training alone. Two-photon imaging revealed VNS induced changes to auditory cortical responses and activated cortically projecting cholinergic axons. Anatomical and optogenetic experiments indicated that VNS can enhance task performance through activation of the central cholinergic system. These results highlight the importance of cholinergic modulation for the efficacy of VNS and may contribute to further refinement of VNS methodology for clinical conditions.

Laminar organization of visual responses in core and parabelt auditory cortex

Abstract Audiovisual (AV) interaction has been shown in many studies of auditory cortex. However, the underlying processes and circuits are unclear because few studies have used methods that delineate the timing and laminar distribution of net excitatory and inhibitory processes within areas, much less across cortical levels. This study examined laminar profiles of neuronal activity in auditory core (AC) and parabelt (PB) cortices recorded from macaques during active discrimination of conspecific faces and vocalizations. We found modulation of multi-unit activity (MUA) in response to isolated visual stimulation, characterized by a brief deep MUA spike, putatively in white matter, followed by mid-layer MUA suppression in core auditory cortex; the later suppressive event had clear current source density concomitants, while the earlier MUA spike did not. We observed a similar facilitation-suppression sequence in the PB, with later onset latency. In combined AV stimulation, there was moderate reduction of responses to sound during the visual-evoked MUA suppression interval in both AC and PB. These data suggest a common sequence of afferent spikes, followed by synaptic inhibition; however, differences in timing and laminar location may reflect distinct visual projections to AC and PB.

Low frequency ultrasound elicits broad cortical responses inhibited by ketamine in mice

The neuromodulatory effects of >250 kHz ultrasound have been well-demonstrated, but the impact of lower-frequency ultrasound, which can transmit better through air and the skull, on the brain is unclear. This study investigates the biological impact of 40 kHz pulsed ultrasound on the brain using calcium imaging and electrophysiology in mice. Our findings reveal burst duration-dependent neural responses in somatosensory and auditory cortices, resembling responses to 12 kHz audible tone, in vivo. In vitro brain slice experiments show no neural responses to 300 kPa 40 kHz ultrasound, implying indirect network effects. Ketamine fully blocks neural responses to ultrasound in both cortices but only partially affects 12 kHz audible tone responses in the somatosensory cortex and has no impact on auditory cortex 12 kHz responses. This suggests that low-frequency ultrasound’s cortical effects rely heavily on NMDA receptors and may involve mechanisms beyond indirect auditory cortex activation. This research uncovers potential low-frequency ultrasound effects and mechanisms in the brain, offering a path for future neuromodulation.

Auditory cortex encodes lipreading information through spatially distributed activity

Watching a speaker's face improves speech perception accuracy. This benefit is enabled, in part, by implicit lipreading abilities present in the general population. While it is established that lipreading can alter the perception of a heard word, it is unknown how these visual signals are represented in the auditory system or how they interact with auditory speech representations. One influential, but untested, hypothesis is that visual speech modulates the population-coded representations of phonetic and phonemic features in the auditory system. This model is largely supported by data showing that silent lipreading evokes activity in the auditory cortex, but these activations could alternatively reflect general effects of arousal or attention or the encoding of non-linguistic features such as visual timing information. This gap limits our understanding of how vision supports speech perception. To test the hypothesis that the auditory system encodes visual speech information, we acquired functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data from healthy adults and intracranial recordings from electrodes implanted in patients with epilepsy during auditory and visual speech perception tasks. Across both datasets, linear classifiers successfully decoded the identity of silently lipread words using the spatial pattern of auditory cortex responses. Examining the time course of classification using intracranial recordings, lipread words were classified at earlier time points relative to heard words, suggesting a predictive mechanism for facilitating speech. These results support a model in which the auditory system combines the joint neural distributions evoked by heard and lipread words to generate a more precise estimate of what was said.

Changes in visually and auditory attended audiovisual speech processing in cochlear implant users: A longitudinal ERP study

Limited auditory input, whether caused by hearing loss or by electrical stimulation through a cochlear implant (CI), can be compensated by the remaining senses. Specifically for CI users, previous studies reported not only improved visual skills, but also altered cortical processing of unisensory visual and auditory stimuli. However, in multisensory scenarios, it is still unclear how auditory deprivation (before implantation) and electrical hearing experience (after implantation) affect cortical audiovisual speech processing.Here, we present a prospective longitudinal electroencephalography (EEG) study which systematically examined the deprivation- and CI-induced alterations of cortical processing of audiovisual words by comparing event-related potentials (ERPs) in postlingually deafened CI users before and after implantation (five weeks and six months of CI use). A group of matched normal-hearing (NH) listeners served as controls. The participants performed a word-identification task with congruent and incongruent audiovisual words, focusing their attention on either the visual (lip movement) or the auditory speech signal. This allowed us to study the (top-down) attention effect on the (bottom-up) sensory cortical processing of audiovisual speech.When compared to the NH listeners, the CI candidates (before implantation) and the CI users (after implantation) exhibited enhanced lipreading abilities and an altered cortical response at the N1 latency range (90–150 ms) that was characterized by a decreased theta oscillation power (4–8 Hz) and a smaller amplitude in the auditory cortex. After implantation, however, the auditory-cortex response gradually increased and developed a stronger intra-modal connectivity. Nevertheless, task efficiency and activation in the visual cortex was significantly modulated in both groups by focusing attention on the visual as compared to the auditory speech signal, with the NH listeners additionally showing an attention-dependent decrease in beta oscillation power (13–30 Hz).In sum, these results suggest remarkable deprivation effects on audiovisual speech processing in the auditory cortex, which partially reverse after implantation. Although even experienced CI users still show distinct audiovisual speech processing compared to NH listeners, pronounced effects of (top-down) direction of attention on (bottom-up) audiovisual processing can be observed in both groups. However, NH listeners but not CI users appear to show enhanced allocation of cognitive resources in visually as compared to auditory attended audiovisual speech conditions, which supports our behavioural observations of poorer lipreading abilities and reduced visual influence on audition in NH listeners as compared to CI users.

40 Hz Steady-State Response in Human Auditory Cortex Is Shaped by Gabaergic Neuronal Inhibition.

The 40 Hz auditory steady-state response (ASSR), an oscillatory brain response to periodically modulated auditory stimuli, is a promising, noninvasive physiological biomarker for schizophrenia and related neuropsychiatric disorders. The 40 Hz ASSR might be amplified by synaptic interactions in cortical circuits, which are, in turn, disturbed in neuropsychiatric disorders. Here, we tested whether the 40 Hz ASSR in the human auditory cortex depends on two key synaptic components of neuronal interactions within cortical circuits: excitation via N-methyl-aspartate glutamate (NMDA) receptors and inhibition via gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA) receptors. We combined magnetoencephalography (MEG) recordings with placebo-controlled, low-dose pharmacological interventions in the same healthy human participants (13 males, 7 females). All participants exhibited a robust 40 Hz ASSR in auditory cortices, especially in the right hemisphere, under a placebo. The GABAA receptor-agonist lorazepam increased the amplitude of the 40 Hz ASSR, while no effect was detectable under the NMDA blocker memantine. Our findings indicate that the 40 Hz ASSR in the auditory cortex involves synaptic (and likely intracortical) inhibition via the GABAA receptor, thus highlighting its utility as a mechanistic signature of cortical circuit dysfunctions involving GABAergic inhibition.

Perceptual formant discrimination during speech movement planning.

Evoked potential studies have shown that speech planning modulates auditory cortical responses. The phenomenon's functional relevance is unknown. We tested whether, during this time window of cortical auditory modulation, there is an effect on speakers' perceptual sensitivity for vowel formant discrimination. Participants made same/different judgments for pairs of stimuli consisting of a pre-recorded, self-produced vowel and a formant-shifted version of the same production. Stimuli were presented prior to a "go" signal for speaking, prior to passive listening, and during silent reading. The formant discrimination stimulus /uh/ was tested with a congruent productions list (words with /uh/) and an incongruent productions list (words without /uh/). Logistic curves were fitted to participants' responses, and the just-noticeable difference (JND) served as a measure of discrimination sensitivity. We found a statistically significant effect of condition (worst discrimination before speaking) without congruency effect. Post-hoc pairwise comparisons revealed that JND was significantly greater before speaking than during silent reading. Thus, formant discrimination sensitivity was reduced during speech planning regardless of the congruence between discrimination stimulus and predicted acoustic consequences of the planned speech movements. This finding may inform ongoing efforts to determine the functional relevance of the previously reported modulation of auditory processing during speech planning.

Dissociable Roles of the Auditory Midbrain and Cortex in Processing the Statistical Features of Natural Sound Textures.

Sound texture perception takes advantage of a hierarchy of time-averaged statistical features of acoustic stimuli, but much remains unclear about how these statistical features are processed along the auditory pathway. Here, we compared the neural representation of sound textures in the inferior colliculus (IC) and auditory cortex (AC) of anesthetized female rats. We recorded responses to texture morph stimuli that gradually add statistical features of increasingly higher complexity. For each texture, several different exemplars were synthesized using different random seeds. An analysis of transient and ongoing multiunit responses showed that the IC units were sensitive to every type of statistical feature, albeit to a varying extent. In contrast, only a small proportion of AC units were overtly sensitive to any statistical features. Differences in texture types explained more of the variance of IC neural responses than did differences in exemplars, indicating a degree of "texture type tuning" in the IC, but the same was, perhaps surprisingly, not the case for AC responses. We also evaluated the accuracy of texture type classification from single-trial population activity and found that IC responses became more informative as more summary statistics were included in the texture morphs, while for AC population responses, classification performance remained consistently very low. These results argue against the idea that AC neurons encode sound type via an overt sensitivity in neural firing rate to fine-grain spectral and temporal statistical features.

The impact of crossmodal predictions on the neural processing of aesthetic stimuli.

Neuroaesthetic research has focused on neural predictive processes involved in the encounter with art stimuli or the related evaluative judgements, and it has been mainly conducted unimodally. Here, with electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography and an affective priming protocol, we investigated whether and how the neural responses to non-representational aesthetic stimuli are top-down modulated by affective representational (i.e. semantically meaningful) predictions between audition and vision. Also, the neural chronometry of affect processing of these aesthetic stimuli was investigated. We hypothesized that the early affective components of crossmodal aesthetic responses are dependent on the affective and representational predictions formed in another sensory modality resulting in differentiated brain responses, and that audition and vision indicate different processing latencies for affect. The target stimuli were aesthetic visual patterns and musical chords, and they were preceded by a prime from the opposing sensory modality. We found that early auditory-cortex responses to chords were more affected by valence than the corresponding visual-cortex ones. Furthermore, the assessments of visual targets were more facilitated by affective congruency of crossmodal primes than the acoustic targets. These results indicate, first, that the brain uses early affective information for predictively guiding aesthetic responses; second, that an affective transfer of information takes place crossmodally, mainly from audition to vision, impacting the aesthetic assessment. This article is part of the theme issue 'Art, aesthetics and predictive processing: theoretical and empirical perspectives'.

Cortical responses time-locked to continuous speech in the high-gamma band depend on selective attention.

Auditory cortical responses to speech obtained by magnetoencephalography (MEG) show robust speech tracking to the speaker's fundamental frequency in the high-gamma band (70-200 Hz), but little is currently known about whether such responses depend on the focus of selective attention. In this study 22 human subjects listened to concurrent, fixed-rate, speech from male and female speakers, and were asked to selectively attend to one speaker at a time, while their neural responses were recorded with MEG. The male speaker's pitch range coincided with the lower range of the high-gamma band, whereas the female speaker's higher pitch range had much less overlap, and only at the upper end of the high-gamma band. Neural responses were analyzed using the temporal response function (TRF) framework. As expected, the responses demonstrate robust speech tracking of the fundamental frequency in the high-gamma band, but only to the male's speech, with a peak latency of ~40 ms. Critically, the response magnitude depends on selective attention: the response to the male speech is significantly greater when male speech is attended than when it is not attended, under acoustically identical conditions. This is a clear demonstration that even very early cortical auditory responses are influenced by top-down, cognitive, neural processing mechanisms.

Many but not all deep neural network audio models capture brain responses and exhibit correspondence between model stages and brain regions.

Models that predict brain responses to stimuli provide one measure of understanding of a sensory system and have many potential applications in science and engineering. Deep artificial neural networks have emerged as the leading such predictive models of the visual system but are less explored in audition. Prior work provided examples of audio-trained neural networks that produced good predictions of auditory cortical fMRI responses and exhibited correspondence between model stages and brain regions, but left it unclear whether these results generalize to other neural network models and, thus, how to further improve models in this domain. We evaluated model-brain correspondence for publicly available audio neural network models along with in-house models trained on 4 different tasks. Most tested models outpredicted standard spectromporal filter-bank models of auditory cortex and exhibited systematic model-brain correspondence: Middle stages best predicted primary auditory cortex, while deep stages best predicted non-primary cortex. However, some state-of-the-art models produced substantially worse brain predictions. Models trained to recognize speech in background noise produced better brain predictions than models trained to recognize speech in quiet, potentially because hearing in noise imposes constraints on biological auditory representations. The training task influenced the prediction quality for specific cortical tuning properties, with best overall predictions resulting from models trained on multiple tasks. The results generally support the promise of deep neural networks as models of audition, though they also indicate that current models do not explain auditory cortical responses in their entirety.

Different hemispheric lateralization for periodicity and formant structure of vowels in the auditory cortex and its changes between childhood and adulthood

The spectral formant structure and periodicity pitch are the major features that determine the identity of vowels and the characteristics of the speaker. However, very little is known about how the processing of these features in the auditory cortex changes during development. To address this question, we independently manipulated the periodicity and formant structure of vowels while measuring auditory cortex responses using magnetoencephalography (MEG) in children aged 7–12 years and adults. We analyzed the sustained negative shift of source current associated with these vowel properties, which was present in the auditory cortex in both age groups despite differences in the transient components of the auditory response. In adults, the sustained activation associated with formant structure was lateralized to the left hemisphere early in the auditory processing stream requiring neither attention nor semantic mapping. This lateralization was not yet established in children, in whom the right hemisphere contribution to formant processing was strong and decreased during or after puberty. In contrast to the formant structure, periodicity was associated with a greater response in the right hemisphere in both children and adults. These findings suggest that left-lateralization for the automatic processing of vowel formant structure emerges relatively late in ontogenesis and pose a serious challenge to current theories of hemispheric specialization for speech processing.

Dynamics and maintenance of categorical responses in primary auditory cortex during task engagement.

Grouping sets of sounds into relevant categories is an important cognitive ability that enables the association of stimuli with appropriate goal-directed behavioral responses. In perceptual tasks, the primary auditory cortex (A1) assumes a prominent role by concurrently encoding both sound sensory features and task-related variables. Here, we sought to explore the role of A1 in the initiation of sound categorization, shedding light on its involvement in this cognitive process. We trained ferrets to discriminate click trains of different rates in a Go/No-Go delayed categorization task and recorded neural activity during both active behavior and passive exposure to the same sounds. Purely categorical response components were extracted and analyzed separately from sensory responses to reveal their contributions to the overall population response throughout the trials. We found that categorical activity emerged during sound presentation in the population average and was present in both active behavioral and passive states. However, upon task engagement, categorical responses to the No-Go category became suppressed in the population code, leading to an asymmetrical representation of the Go stimuli relative to the No-Go sounds and pre-stimulus baseline. The population code underwent an abrupt change at stimulus offset, with sustained responses after the Go sounds during the delay period. Notably, the categorical responses observed during the stimulus period exhibited a significant correlation with those extracted from the delay epoch, suggesting an early involvement of A1 in stimulus categorization.

Multiple Concurrent Predictions Inform Prediction Error in the Human Auditory Pathway.

The key assumption of the predictive coding framework is that internal representations are used to generate predictions on how the sensory input will look like in the immediate future. These predictions are tested against the actual input by the so-called prediction error units, which encode the residuals of the predictions. What happens to prediction errors, however, if predictions drawn by different stages of the sensory hierarchy contradict each other? To answer this question, we conducted two fMRI experiments while female and male human participants listened to sequences of sounds: pure tones in the first experiment and frequency-modulated sweeps in the second experiment. In both experiments, we used repetition to induce predictions based on stimulus statistics (stats-informed predictions) and abstract rules disclosed in the task instructions to induce an orthogonal set of (task-informed) predictions. We tested three alternative scenarios: neural responses in the auditory sensory pathway encode prediction error with respect to (1) the stats-informed predictions, (2) the task-informed predictions, or (3) a combination of both. Results showed that neural populations in all recorded regions (bilateral inferior colliculus, medial geniculate body, and primary and secondary auditory cortices) encode prediction error with respect to a combination of the two orthogonal sets of predictions. The findings suggest that predictive coding exploits the non-linear architecture of the auditory pathway for the transmission of predictions. Such non-linear transmission of predictions might be crucial for the predictive coding of complex auditory signals like speech.Significance Statement Sensory systems exploit our subjective expectations to make sense of an overwhelming influx of sensory signals. It is still unclear how expectations at each stage of the processing pipeline are used to predict the representations at the other stages. The current view is that this transmission is hierarchical and linear. Here we measured fMRI responses in auditory cortex, sensory thalamus, and midbrain while we induced two sets of mutually inconsistent expectations on the sensory input, each putatively encoded at a different stage. We show that responses at all stages are concurrently shaped by both sets of expectations. The results challenge the hypothesis that expectations are transmitted linearly and provide for a normative explanation of the non-linear physiology of the corticofugal sensory system.

Spectral and phase-coherence correlates of impaired auditory mismatch negativity (MMN) in schizophrenia: A MEG study.

Reduced auditory mismatch negativity (MMN) is robustly impaired in schizophrenia. However, mechanisms underlying dysfunctional MMN generation remain incompletely understood. This study aimed to examine the role of evoked spectral power and phase-coherence towards deviance detection and its impairments in schizophrenia. Magnetoencephalography data was collected in 16 male schizophrenia patients and 16 male control participants during an auditory MMN paradigm. Analyses of event-related fields (ERF), spectral power and inter-trial phase-coherence (ITPC) focused on Heschl's gyrus, superior temporal gyrus, inferior/medial frontal gyrus and thalamus. MMNm ERF amplitudes were reduced in patients in temporal, frontal and subcortical regions, accompanied by decreased theta-band responses, as well as by a diminished gamma-band response in auditory cortex. At theta/alpha frequencies, ITPC to deviant tones was reduced in patients in frontal cortex and thalamus. Patients were also characterized by aberrant responses to standard tones as indexed by reduced theta-/alpha-band power and ITPC in temporal and frontal regions. Moreover, stimulus-specific adaptation was decreased at theta/alpha frequencies in left temporal regions, which correlated with reduced MMNm spectral power and ERF amplitude. Finally, phase-reset of alpha-oscillations after deviant tones in left thalamus was impaired, which correlated with impaired MMNm generation in auditory cortex. Importantly, both non-rhythmic and rhythmic components of spectral activity contributed to the MMNm response. Our data indicate that deficits in theta-/alpha- and gamma-band activity in cortical and subcortical regions as well as impaired spectral responses to standard sounds could constitute potential mechanisms for dysfunctional MMN generation in schizophrenia, providing a novel perspective towards MMN deficits in the disorder.