Emergency Response Services Research Articles

Psychiatric Characteristics, Symptoms of Insomnia and Depression, Emotion Regulation, and Social Activity among Swiss Medical Students.

Background: Almost by default, young adult students are at increased risk of suffering from mental health issues, and this holds particularly true for medical students. Indeed, compared to the general population and non-medical students, medical students report higher scores for symptoms of depression. For Swiss medical students, research on the associations between psychiatric characteristics and symptoms of depression and insomnia, including cognitive-emotional processes and social activity, has been lacking so far. Given this, the aims of the present study were to relate self-declared psychiatric characteristics to symptoms of depression, insomnia, emotion regulation, and social activity. Methods: A total of 575 medical students (mean age: 22.4 years; 68.9% females) completed an online survey covering sociodemographic information (age and gender), study context (year of study), self-declared psychiatric characteristics and symptoms of depression, insomnia, emotion regulation (cognitive reappraisal vs. emotion suppression), and social activity. Data on insomnia sum scores and categories of historical samples (862 non-medical students and 533 police and emergency response service officers) were used for comparison. Results: Of the 575 participants, 190 participants (33%) self-declared psychiatric issues, such as major depressive disorder; anxiety disorders, including PTSD and adjustment disorders; eating disorders; ADHD; or a combination of such psychiatric issues. Self-reporting a psychiatric issue was related to higher symptoms of depression and insomnia and lower symptoms of social activity and cognitive reappraisal (always with significant p-values and medium effect sizes). Compared to historical data for non-medical students and police and emergency response service officers, medical students reported higher insomnia scores. In a regression model, current self-declared psychiatric issues, female gender, higher scores for insomnia, and lower scores for social activity were associated with higher scores for depression. Conclusions: Among a sample of Swiss medical students, the occurrence of self-declared psychiatric issues was associated with higher scores for depression and insomnia and lower cognitive reappraisal and social activity. Further, insomnia scores and insomnia categories were higher when compared to non-medical students and to police and emergency response service officers. The data suggest that medical schools might introduce specifically tailored intervention and support programs to mitigate medical students' mental health issues. This holds particularly true for insomnia, as standardized and online-delivered treatment programs for insomnia (eCBTi) are available.

The burden of natural gas leaks on public sector emergency response in the United States

Fire departments play a critical role in responding to potential hazards generated by natural gas and propane leaks, yet the costs of providing these services is unknown. Here, we analyzed 15 years of gas leak-coded incidents from the National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) and estimated associated costs using fire department operating budgets. From 2003 to 2018, a total of 2.4 million gas leak-coded incidents required fire department responses, accounting for ∼0.8% of all nationwide incidents. Reported gas leak incidents have steadily increased nationwide, nearly quadrupling from 2003 to 2018. In 2018, New York City (NYC) experienced 22,090 gas leak incidents—more than the next 25 cities combined—conservatively costing NYC $70 million annually. With a median national response cost of $2609 (S.D. $1734), uncombusted gas leaks conservatively cost U.S. fire departments $564 million in 2018—at least 10x greater than for gas leak-caused fires. City-level natural gas systems entail an underappreciated and increasing public cost burden on emergency response services. Findings herein raise the salience of gas leak-associated emergency response costs and support improved gas leak response coordination between emergency services and gas utility providers. Decision-makers are encouraged to incorporate these costs into cost-benefit analyses and consider the intended and unintended effects on emergency response systems in managing energy transitions.

ИССЛЕДОВАНИЕ СИСТЕМЫ КООРДИНАЦИИ ГУМАНИТАРНОГО РЕАГИРОВАНИЯ НА ЧРЕЗВЫЧАЙНЫЕ СИТУАЦИИ ООН

The article is devoted to the existing international problems of improving the process of coordinating the humanitarian response to UN emergencies. The analysis of the need to conduct a study on the prospects for further improvement of the UN humanitarian emergency response coordination system has been carried out. It is reflected that, by their nature, humanitarian problems can arise unpredictably and have negative consequences, including for the population, material and cultural values. It is concluded that the urgent need of the world's states to receive international humanitarian assistance is the main incentive for the development of the UN humanitarian emergency response coordination system. The main factors influencing the improvement of the humanitarian response coordination system have been identified. The implementation of the principle of humanism aimed at the comprehensive realization of the life support of the affected population, in which the most important role belongs to States with preferential economic opportunities, is determined. The decisive role of using international experience in the use of national emergency response services of individual states is reflected, taking into account the specific features of the training of management bodies, forces and means, as well as in accordance with the requirements of regulatory legal regulation in the prevention and liquidation of emergency situations. The main directions of improving the system of coordination of humanitarian response to the UN emergency are proposed.

Emergency Service Response Time Performance Analysis in the Hospitals with Level Two Health Facilities: Comparative Study

The Emergency Unit (ER) is a part of the hospital that provides rapid treatment for patients according to the severity of their condition. Response time is the speed of the medical team in the ER in treating patients, starting from the moment the patient arrives until medical action is given. Fast and precise response time can reduce the complications that can arise and the patient's cost burden. The number of patients and the number of nurses that are not comparable can affect the response time of nurses. Research observing and comparing response times is still very limited. This study aims to determine the difference in service response time in the ER in two hospitals with second-level health facilities. This type of research is quantitative using a descriptive comparative approach. The research method uses observation and questionnaire methods. Data collection directly using the stopwhatt tool. Sampling was taken using the Accidental sampling technique. Data analysis used the difference between two means test with Mann-Whitney. Observations were carried out on nurses in the emergency room totaling 52 observations in each hospital for three months. The results of the analysis show a value of P = 0.688, where this probability value is more than 0.05, so the hypothesis fails to be rejected, so it can be concluded that statistically there is no significant difference in the Response Time of nurses in the two Emergency Units. Nurses must provide a response time according to the regulations set by the Ministry of Health, namely less than five minutes.

FIRST RESPONDERS’ CRISIS: HOW AI CAN HELP TO BRING MORE INTERNAL WORKFORCE FOR EMERGENCIES AND SEASONAL WORK FASTER AND AT LOWER COST

This article focuses on analyzing crisis situations in emergency response services and the role of artificial intelligence in enhancing their efficiency. The study aims to examine the challenges faced by emergency services and determine how artificial intelligence can help mobilize more internal resources for responding to emergencies and seasonal work. Methodology and methods: the study employed general scientific methods of cognition, such as analysis, synthesis, modeling, and forecasting. The research results indicate that natural and man-made disasters, such as floods, accidents, and terrorist acts, lead to loss of life, suffering, and infrastructure destruction. The main causes of challenges include a wide range of conditions such as weakness, unspecified injuries, changes in mental state, acute pain, general abdominal pain, and other less defined conditions requiring medical assistance. The increase in calls for psychological help points to an escalation of mental health issues among the population. During seasonal changes, there is a rise in the number of calls. In winter, due to harsh weather conditions, dangerous situations related to snowstorms and avalanches occur more frequently. Artificial intelligence can significantly improve the efficiency of emergency response services by allowing for more productive use of available resources. Utilizing specialized mobile applications, chatbots, volunteer training, and AI-powered drones can enhance coordination, resource allocation, and response speed to emergencies. Additionally, AI-based technologies such as predictive systems and route optimization can help overcome geographical challenges.The practical significance of the study lies in identifying ways to enhance the efficiency of emergency response services through modern technologies.

Workshop Response Time at the Emergency Room Lubuk Pakam Health Center

Higher level of achievement of the community in the local area, this is also a service in the area which is a world-class public and individual service, at the same time prioritized in promotion and prevention efforts. Decree of the Minister of Health Number 129 of 2008 concerning Minimum Service Standards in Emergency Installations, Response Time, also known as "emergency service response time", is the time needed by patients from the time they arrive at the Emergency Installation until they are given first aid in minutes. The maximum response time is five minutes. The results of the study showed that the number of qualified nurses, the availability of medical equipment, and emergency room employees are the main factors affecting response time. An important factor in evaluating the quality of health services is patient satisfaction, which is measured by how patients act after receiving health services. Patient satisfaction also depends on how well the service offers patient expectations. Patient service has a significant impact on patient satisfaction and is an important component in the Puskesmas system that must always be evaluated. The experience and ability of a doctor in handling emergency patients quickly and accurately correlates with patient satisfaction. Patients who receive good health services will indirectly promote and recommend the health facility to their families.

A geospatial perspective of flood risk hotspots, transport networks and emergency response services in Accra, Ghana

ABSTRACT This paper adds to existing knowledge about flood management in Accra and contributes insights into emergency responses to major flood events in a geospatial context. The study identifies and analyses the specific routes from the facilities of emergency responders to designated flood-prone areas within four sites in the peripheral areas of the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area. Flood hotspots were ascertained from several sources including local knowledge and bluespot maps derived from a 10 m resolution elevation model. GIS-based network analysis was used to determine the fastest routes from emergency responder facilities to flood hotspots, based on OpenStreetMap data. Interviews revealed that the computed routes are unsuitable for emergency services due to narrow passages and prevailing conditions during the floods. It is necessary to incorporate the individual responder’s knowledge gained through familiarization with the local terrain to identify the optimal routes. The study further analysed the accessibility of emergency response services using indicative service area maps that present an account of time-distance from various emergency responders’ bases. Finally, the study recommends the need for better planning of the expanding areas of the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, in terms of accessibility for emergency responders.

Bioterrorism in the Twenty-First Century: Exploring the Threat of Potential use of Biological Weapons by Anti-State Agents

Bioterrorism involves the intentional dissemination of biological agents, such as bacteria, viruses, toxins, or fungi, with the aim of causing widespread fear, illness, and death among targeted populations. Anti-state agents, including terrorist organizations or individuals with extremist ideologies, may employ bioterrorism as a means to achieve their political, ideological, or religious objectives. The study explores the motivation behind the potential use of bioterrorism by anti-state agents, the threat of biological warfare, and the state readiness in the case of a biological attack. It examines the history of biological warfare, the factors that make biological warfare attractive to terrorist organizations including potential for mass casualties, psychological factors behind the attacks, access of biological agents, and the issues and challenges associated with detection, responses, and prevention of a biological attack by anti-state agents. The research used securitization theory to understand the phenomenon behind biological warfare. The study identified that despite the small scale of biological attacks in the past by anti-state agents, the threat has increased in the recent times as the technological advances and access to these agents make the people vulnerable to such attacks by the non-state actors . The study also concluded that strengthening global surveillance systems, enhancing public health infrastructure, and promoting information sharing among states and international emergency response services are vital in preventing and mitigating the impact of bioterrorist attacks.

Emergency services response to eCall System alerts: Observations from 2016–2022 in the National Fire and Rescue System

Objective Analysis of interventions by fire protection units in road traffic incidents alerted by the eCall system between 2016 and 2022. Materials and Methods Data from the State Fire Service Decision Support System (SFS DSS), provided by the Operational Planning Office, were used. Events from January 1, 2016, 00:00 to December 31, 2022, 23:59 were analyzed. Quantitative data were described using mean (Mean) and standard deviation (SD). Correlations and differences at a significance level of p < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. The analysis is anonymous for both victims and officers involved in the interventions. Results Between 2016 and 2022, firefighters were alerted by the e-call system 896 times. The shortest average intervention time was 47 ± 37 min and was recorded in 2021. In the comparative analysis of intervention time and factors conditioning the use of the eCall system, it was shown that this time was significantly statistically dependent on the number of cars involved in the incident (p < 0.001), the number of injured persons (p < 0.001), the type of intervention (p < 0.001),), and the occurrence of fuel leakage (p < 0.001). Conclusions ECall is a relevant system for reporting accidents and collisions on the road. While it proves reliable in road incidents, a significantly high number of false alarms initiated from eCall requires system refinement to avoid accidental alarms and user education about the possibility of unintentionally sending an alarm signal. The authors predict that as the number of vehicles with the eCall system introduced to the roads increases, so will the number of notifications from this system. Data from the analysis of false reports suggest that mechanics and electricians in facilities performing repairs and maintenance of vehicles with the eCall system may lack the necessary knowledge of the need to deactivate the system before starting work. The number of injured people had no impact on the intervention time, which may prove that the rescue services were properly prepared.

Modeling the Impact of Community First Responders

In community first responder (CFR) systems, traditional emergency service response is augmented by a network of trained volunteers who are dispatched via an app. A central application of such systems is out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA), where a very fast response is crucial. For a target performance level, how many volunteers are needed, and from which locations should they be recruited? We model the presence of volunteers throughout a region as a Poisson point process, which permits the computation of the response-time distribution of the first-arriving volunteer. Combining this with known survival-rate functions, we deduce survival probabilities in the cardiac arrest setting. We then use convex optimization to compute a location distribution of volunteers across the region that optimizes either the fraction of incidents with a fast response (a common measure in the industry) or patient survival in the case of OHCA. The optimal location distribution provides a bound on the best possible performance with a given number of volunteers. This can be used to determine whether introducing a CFR system in a new region is worthwhile or can serve as a guide for additional recruitment in existing systems. Effective target areas for recruitment are not always obvious because volunteers recruited from one area may be found in various areas across the city depending on the time of day; we explicitly capture this issue. We demonstrate these methods through an extended case study of Auckland, New Zealand. This paper was accepted by Carri Chan, healthcare management. Funding: This research was financed in part by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) in the form of a Rubicon grant (019.172EN.016) to C. J. Jagtenberg and a Veni grant (VI.Veni.191E.005) to P. L. van den Berg. S. G. Henderson and H. Li were supported in part by National Science Foundation [Grant CMMI-2035086]. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam and Erasmus University received funding from TKI Dinalog [Grant 2023-1-307TKI]. Some of this work has been executed under the TKI Dinalog [Grant 2023-1-307TKI]. Part of this work was completed during a research visit made possible by a [Distinguished Visitor Award] from the University of Auckland. Supplemental Material: The online appendix and data files are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2022.04024 .

Digital Solutions for Disaster Management: Analyzing the Impact of the February 2023 Earthquake in Türkiye

This research investigates the involvement of information technologies, including communication platforms and social media solutions, in managing earthquake disasters, specifically focusing on the February 2023 earthquake in Türkiye. In order to achieve this, a comparative framework is constructed, which incorporates four main categories, namely goal, providers, target phase, and platform. The data is gathered from diverse sources, and a total of 130 solutions are identified immediately following the February 2023 earthquake in Türkiye. After conducting a thorough examination of these solutions and removing any duplicates and irrelevant options, the final dataset comprises 89 unique solutions sourced from 82 providers. According to the study's findings, the solutions employed in mitigation and preparedness phases prioritize proactive measures and planning, while the ones in response phase witnesses a significant increase in activities related to aid campaigns, emergency response, information dissemination, and support services. The solutions in recovery phase further intensifies support services to aid affected communities. Web-based platforms are predominantly used during different phases of disaster management, with mobile platforms playing a crucial role in communication and on-the-ground activities. Private organizations exhibit strong involvement in developing IT platforms, while public entities and NGOs contribute to a lesser extent.

Investment Analysis of New Fire Truck: A Case Study of Purchase or Rent Option

PKT, as a petrochemical company with high potential hazards, prioritizes emergency preparedness and response by complying with regulations and standards. In addition to serving its own needs, PKT’s fire and rescue department also provides emergency services to four neighboring companies through an annual fee cooperation scheme. To enhance the emergency response services, PKT conducted an evaluation and identified the need for an additional fire truck unit with up-to-date technology. To determine the most suitable option, PKT is considering purchasing or renting the new fire truck units. A financial modeling analysis was conducted using income from health and safety services. The financial feasibility analysis, considering parameters such as NPV, IRR, and discounted payback period, resulted in a feasible outcome. The Purchase option exhibited better economic value, with a predicted NPV of Rp. 569,276,495, an IRR of 11.56% (higher than the discount rate of 10.5%), and a discounted payback period of 9.35 years. Sensitivity analysis, using tornado and spider charts, revealed that the annual fee from clients or joint venture companies had the most significant impact on the project’s financial performance, followed by manpower costs. A 20% increase in annual fees led to a significant increase in NPV Rp. 6,639,013,466, while a 20% decrease resulted in a significant decrease in NPV (−Rp. 5,500,460,477). Similarly, a 20% increase in manpower costs resulted in a decreased NPV of Rp. −3,500,609,667. Based on the sensitivity analysis, the two significant factors influencing the purchase option were identified as the annual fee and manpower cost. Recommendations that are also put forward for this study are identification to anticipate increases in labor costs and to keep manpower costs under control. The increase in manpower costs must be accompanied by an increase in income. Exploring opportunities to attract additional clients, particularly companies in the industrial complex that do not yet have an agreement with PKT, is also advised. By implementing these recommendations and ensuring cost control, PKT can optimize its emergency response services and maintain a financially viable operation.

Emergency Preparedness for Guests with Mobility Impairments and Frequency of Visits in Five-Star Hotels in Nairobi City County, Kenya

The purpose of this study was therefore to establish the influence of emergency preparedness on the frequency of visits to five-star hotels in Nairobi City County, Kenya. The specific goals of this research were: to record the types of hazards encountered by five-star hotels in Nairobi City County; to identify the areas of those hotels where emergencies occur; to learn about the barriers to emergency response services for guests with mobility impairments in those hotels; and to identify the factors in emergency response systems that significantly influence visit by guests with mobility impairments. The study was informed by two theories; the theory of time constraints on leisure activities and the theory of social oppression. Ten five-star hotels in Nairobi County served as the sample for this census-style investigation. The sample size was determined by a systematic sampling procedure. The data was gathered through the use of semi-structured questionnaires that were administered by the researcher. Data was coded and analyzed in SPSS using both descriptive and inferential statistical methods. Relationships between the independent variable and the dependent variables were determined using multiple regressions. Tables, charts, and bars were used to show the study's findings. The findings showed that the majority of the five-star hotels had not frequently encountered several types of emergencies. The study found that employee training for emergency preparedness was positively and significantly related to the frequency of visits by guests with mobility impairments to five-star hotels in Nairobi City County, Kenya at (β=0.595, p˂.001). The study concludes that while most sections of these five-star hotels, like kitchens and swimming pools, are perceived as safe zones with minimal emergencies, the parking area emerges as a potential concern. The hotels' commitment to staff training in emergency preparedness is evident, especially in hazard identification and spill response. The study thus recommends that the management of five-star hotels in Nairobi City County should conduct thorough risk assessments, considering both high and low-frequency hazards. Emergency protocols should also be in place not only for situations like terrorist threats but also for seemingly less immediate threats like floods and utility failures. Keywords: Emergency preparedness, Risk assessment, Five-Star Hotels, Mobility impairments, Nairobi City County

Evaluating emergency service response to COVID-19: A scoping review.

The issue of how emergency services (police, fire, ambulance, local authorities) respond to pandemics has received greater research focus recently in relation to the COVID-19 outbreak, which saw agencies going beyond usual roles to support communities for prolonged periods. A critical appraisal is needed of this published evidence to take stock of what is known about the effectiveness of emergency service response to Covid-19. A scoping review of scientific and grey literature identified 17 qualitative (N=9), quantitative (N=6), or mixed methods (N=2) studies from across the UK and internationally that focus on the effectiveness of emergency service response to the Covid-19 outbreak. A narrative review was conducted using an interpretive approach. Papers were read, summarised, and then sorted into inductive themes that addressed some aspect of the review question. Eight critical themes emerged from the narrative review. Across countries, emergency services were required to quickly adapt working practices to reduce spread of infection, support partner agencies facing unprecedented demands, and make effective use of limited resources. Use of technology, access to timely, accurate and relevant information, strong leadership, prior experience, and emergency training were critical to this. However, most research is descriptive rather than evaluative. Overall, findings highlight the need for further research that examines what mechanisms facilitate and hinder emergency response to pandemics. This scoping review provides a knowledge framework for informing future research that can support emergency services in preparing for events of national and international significance.

Factors affecting injury severity in motorcycle crashes: Different age groups analysis using Catboost and SHAP techniques

Objective Motorcycle crashes often result in severe injuries on roads that affect people’s lives physically, financially, and psychologically. These injuries could be notably harmful to drivers of all age groups. The main objective of this study is to investigate the risk factors contributing to the severity of crash injuries in different age groups. Methods This Objective is achieved by developing accurate machine learning (ML) based prediction models. This research examines the relationship between potential risk factors of motorcycle-associated crashes using (ML) and Shapley Additive explanations (SHAP) technique. The SHAP technique further helped interpreting ML methods for traffic injury severity prediction. It indicates the significant non-linear interactions between dependent and independent variables. The data for this study was collected from the Provincial Emergency Response Service RESCUE 1122 for the Rawalpindi region (Pakistan) over three years (from 2017 to 2020). The Synthetic Minority Oversampling Technique (SMOTE) is employed to balance injury severity classes in the pre-processing phase. Results The results demonstrate that age, gender, posted speed limit, the number of lanes, and month of the year are positively associated with severe and fatal injuries. This research also assesses how the modeling framework varies between the ML and classical statistical methods. The predictive performance of proposed ML models was assessed using several evaluation metrics, and it is found that Catboost outperformed the XGBoost, Random Forest (RF) and Multinomial Logit (MNL) model. Conclusion The findings of this study will assist road users, road safety authorities, stakeholders, policymakers, and decision-makers in obtaining substantial and essential guidance for reducing the severity of crash injuries in Pakistan and other countries with prevailing conditions.

The Effects of Job Characteristics of Firefighters Dispatched to Disaster Sites on Job Satisfaction

This empirical study investigates how the job characteristics of firefighters, who provide immediate fire suppression, rescue, and emergency response services when a disaster occurs, affect their job satisfaction. Through a literature review, we evaluated the job characteristics of firefighters dispatched to disaster sites according to their levels of “risk”, “urgency”, “uncertainty”, “ambiguity” and “shift work” and selected 296 firefighters involved in fire suppression, rescue, and first aid. We surveyed the subjects to verify the causal relationship between their job characteristics and job satisfaction. Uncertainty and shift work were found to have a statistically significant negative (−) effect on job satisfaction, and urgency was found to have a positive (+) effect. On this basis, an efficient and effective personnel policy plan for the fire service organization was presented.

ENHANCING THE QUALITY OF CNN-BASED BURNED AREA DETECTION IN SATELLITE IMAGERY THROUGH DATA AUGMENTATION

Abstract. This study aims to enhance the quality of detecting burned areas in satellite imagery using deep learning by optimizing the training dataset volume through the application of various augmentation methods. The study analyzes the impact of image flipping, rotation, and noise addition on the overall accuracy for different classes of burned areas in a forest: fire, burned, smoke and background. Results demonstrate that while single augmentation techniques such as flipping and rotation alone did not result in significant improvements, a combined approach and the addition of noise resulted in an enhancement of the classification accuracy. Moreover, the study shows that augmenting the dataset through the use of multiple augmentation methods concurrently, resulting in a fivefold increase in input data, also enhanced the recognition accuracy. The study also highlights the need for further research in developing more efficient CNN models and in experimenting with additional augmentation methods to improve the accuracy of burned area detection, which would benefit environmental protection and emergency response services.

Outsourcing for emergency relief: Unravelling key strategies

Modern relief organisations are overwhelmed with complex emergency response operations. Man-made and natural disasters are affecting millions of people, infrastructure and land. In developing countries, many emergency relief programs fail due to ineffective outsourcing management of emergency response services. This has been worsened by failure to understand the concept of outsourcing and measures to improve it. Little is known about the key strategies of outsourcing and their impact on emergency relief performance. Thus, the study sought to establish key strategies of outsourcing and their impact on performance of emergency relief programme. The study employed a descriptive research design tapping into quantitative research approach. To collect data from respondents, the closed-ended questionnaires were used. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in analysing the quantitative data. The study found that adopting strategies to enhance outsourcing improved the organisation’s efficiency and effectiveness in performing emergency relief services. The study revealed that investing in information technology and software systems; and adopting supply chain modelling, algorithms and programming are impetus strategies that can be implemented by a leading non-governmental organisation to enhance outsourcing. Thus, there is significant relationship between exercise of sustainable strategies that enhances outsourcing and performance improvement of emergency relief services. The management of the organisation should adopt information technology, artificial intelligence and data analytics when outsourcing services within the organisation. The study focused on a leading non-governmental organisation in Zimbabwe neglecting other emergency relief organizations and thus making it difficult to make inferences to other players. Therefore, th? researcher recommends that further studies should consider taking all humanitarian organisations to have a comprehensive understanding on the issue under study.

Risk management of critical information infrastructure: threats-vulnerabilities-consequences

Today, interaction between people and objects, including industrial ones, has become an integral part of our everyday life. Access to communications, finance, and all forms of information management and permission to use them can be obtained from almost anywhere using compact devices.&#x0D; For example, operators can remotely control individual sectors and control operations in several areas at the same time, surgeons can operate on patients thousands of miles away, and car manufacturers can detect when one of their vehicles has been in an accident within a few seconds after the accident.&#x0D; As a result of the spread of the Internet and wireless data networks, the interconnection of so much data, technology and network equipment and devices has quickly become the basis of modern society. At present, we have become a knowledge-based society that often relies on technology to execute or support almost all tasks and functions of human life. Undoubtedly, this has greatly expanded the range of tasks to be solved, but at the same time, the society became much more vulnerable to threats in information and communication systems.&#x0D; The vulnerability is explained by the fact that at some point most of the production of different directions and industries is supported by the introduction, storage and search of data/information in a interconnected network of hard disks and data servers, locally or remotely located. And at each of these stages there is an opportunity to steal data, bypass protection, manipulate or replace information. But the risks associated with unintentional accidents caused by human errors, system failures, incompatibility or other unexpected problems, as well as “natural disasters,” must also be taken into account.&#x0D; Therefore, the security of computer or cyber systems is a matter of national security. Actually, cyber-threats are so great that more and more security experts are pointing out that protection of cyber systems and data is more of a problem than terrorism. Given the scale of the threat (in terms of cyberattacks) and the actual damage it can be argued, certain systems and structures are at risk [1, 2]. It is proved that hackers can break into government and business websites, steal personal data, change the traffic light scheme, accelerate and slow down travel, and much more.&#x0D; As an example, the implementation of a specially created malware program - Stuxnet. The effects of its use were the self-destruction in 2010 of dozens of centrifuges, which supported Iranʼs nuclear program [3, 4]. Some experts think that Stuxnet was created not by independent attackers and possibly with the support of the government. Thus, as a conclusion, it can be confirmed that hackers operate from anywhere in the world, and the links and boundaries between cyberspace and physical systems are sufficiently leveled. Thus, as a conclusion, it can be confirmed that intruders operate from anywhere in the world, and the links and borders between cyberspace and physical systems are sufficiently leveled.&#x0D; Society is increasingly faced with the fact that a group or even a person armed with a complex computer virus or knowledge about the vulnerability of software or hardware can cause a lot of physical damage to people’s lives or physical destruction, impose significant social or economic damage, and so on. For example, there are facts published by the Financial times on May 8, 2012 (http://on.ft.com/1wviXHW) that an unknown group for many years is trying to penetrate into the systems of managing the networks of gas pipelines of the USA. At the end of 2014, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States announced that hackers from China successfully broke and destroyed American satellite networks, causing loss of services related to the prediction of various natural cataclysms, air flight corridors, navigation and other industries within a few days (http://wapo.st/1u7N9dJ).&#x0D; As a rule, the critical infrastructure includes power and transport main networks, oil and gas pipelines, sea ports, high-speed and governmental communication channels, systems of life support (water and heat supply) of mega-cities, waste management, emergency services and emergency response services, high-tech enterprises and enterprises of military-industrial complex, as well as central authorities.&#x0D; The government critical information infrastructure is only one of many important systems and networks that create our modern society. Therefore, the state and society are fully dependent on the functioning of different objects and subjects of critical information infrastructure, and the loss of integrity of any of them can lead to various kinds of failures (termination of production and transfer of electricity, temporary and long-term interruptions, improper access to medical care, and much more). Each state is a separate critical information infrastructure, but cooperation between states takes place within the framework of global critical information infrastructure. At the same time, large investments in each sector of critical information infrastructure have led to an increase in economic development rates and improvement in the quality of life.

Awareness and utilization of emergency response service to road traffic crashes in Nigeria: a cross-sectional study

Awareness and utilization of emergency response service to road traffic crashes in Nigeria: a cross-sectional study