Response Cost Research Articles

Evaluating the sustainable use of mobile payment contactless technologies within and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic using a hybrid SEM-ANN approach

PurposeWhile there is an abundant amount of literature studies on mobile payment adoption, there is a scarce of knowledge concerning the sustainable use of mobile payment contactless technologies. As those technologies are mainly concerned with security and users' trust, the question of how security factors and trust can influence the sustainable use of those technologies within and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic is still unanswered. This research thus develops a theoretical model based on integrating the protection motivation theory (PMT) and the expectation-confirmation model (ECM), extended with perceived trust (PT) to explore the sustainable use of mobile payment contactless technologies.Design/methodology/approachThe developed model is evaluated based on data collected through a web-based survey from 523 users who used contactless payment technologies. Unlike the existing literature, the collected data were analyzed using a hybrid structural equation modeling-artificial neural network (SEM-ANN) technique.FindingsThe data analysis results reinforced all the proposed relationships in the developed model. The sensitivity analysis results showed that PT has the largest impact on the sustainable use of mobile payment contactless technologies with 97.2% normalized importance, followed by self-efficacy (SE) (77%), satisfaction (72.1%), perceived vulnerability (PV) (48.9%), perceived usefulness (PU) (48.2%), perceived severity (PS) (40.7%), response efficacy (RE) (28.7%) and response costs (RCs) (24.1%).Originality/valueThe originality of this research lies behind the development of an integrated model based on PMT and ECM to understand the sustainable use of mobile payment contactless technologies. The study provides several managerial implications for decision-makers, policy-makers and service providers to ensure the sustainability of those contactless technologies within and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic.

IMPACT OF CYBER SECURITY COST ON THE FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF E-BANKING: MEDIATING INFLUENCE OF PRODUCT INNOVATION PERFORMANCE

Purpose of Study: The study objectives are to: a) conduct a meta-analytical review to analyze the association among cybersecurity costs, such as prevention and detection costs (PDC), response costs (RC), development costs (DC), and indirect costs (IC), on the e-banking product innovation performance (PIP) and financial performance (FP), b) to evaluate the causal association of cyber security costs, i.e., (PDC, RC, DC, and IC) on PIP and FP; and c) investigate the mediating effects of PIP in a relationship between PDC, RC, DC, IC and FP. 
 Methodology: The study sample was the managerial cadre employees of various electronic banks (e-banks) working in Pakistan. The survey was conducted by distributing the questionnaire among the employees of e-banks working in Pakistan. The collected data were estimated via multivariate statistical techniques.
 Findings: The results of the study showed that a) the costs associated with cybersecurity, specifically PDC, RC, and DC, have a statistically significant effect on PIP and e-banking FP, whereas IC has a negative significant influence on the PIP and FP, b) the PIP has a statistically significant effect on e-banking FP, and c) the PIP partially mediates an association between PDC, RC, DC, and FP, whereas, PIP insignificantly mediates in a relationship amongst IC and e-banking FP. 
 Application of Study: The study will applicable in the modern electronic banking (e-banking) systematic risk control and information security solution.
 Novelty: The study is novel in the context of cyber security costs, including (PDC, RC, DC, IC) by measuring its influence on PI and e-banking FP.

UNDERSTANDING INDONESIAN CITIZEN'S INTENTIONS TO TAKE PERSONAL PROTECTIVE MEASURES AND FOLLOW A STAY-AT-HOME ORDER TO LIMIT THE SPREAD OF COVID-19

Purpose of the study: This study is aimed to analyze the factors which influence the Intention of the Indonesian public to take personal protective measures and follow the stay-at-home order.
 Methodology: This study was a cross-sectional study, using an instrument of an online questionnaire consisting of 75 questions. A total of 8 hypotheses, built on the foundation of the TPB and PMT model, was tested. The hypotheses were tested using a Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). An online questionnaire was distributed in May 2020 with the target population of the Indonesian public, especially the ones who have a stay-at-home order in their cities.
 Main Findings: All 8 hypotheses were accepted. In the TPB model, It was revealed that Attitude (AT), Subjective Norms (SN), and Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) significantly affect the public Intention to take personal protective measures. While in the PMT model, Perceived Vulnerability (PV), Perceived Severity (PS), Self-efficacy (SE), Response Efficacy (RE), and Response Cost (RC) have significant relationships with the public Intention to follow a stay-at-home order.
 Applications of this study: Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) is found to be a powerful predictor of the public Intention to take personal protective measures while for the compliance towards stay-at-home order, Response Efficacy (RE) is found to be a powerful predictor. Therefore, governments and public health organizations are encouraged to focus on giving educations to the public of how a stay-at-home order could be a crucial thing to do in combating COVID-19 promoting to the public that taking personal protective measures is a good thing and not a hard action to do.
 Novelty/Originality of this study: We addressed COVID-19 in a novel way, which is understanding people's underlying psychological factors that influence particular COVID-19 related behaviors. By doing so, this study helps researchers and policymakers in making the appropriate policies and recommendations in slowing the spread of COVID-19.

Analyzing farmers' drought risk management behavior: Evidence from Iran

To control and reduce the effects of drought, it is essential for farmers to do drought risk management so as to cope with climate change. The purpose of this study was to “assessing farmers' drought risk management behavior (FDRMB) in downstream of Karkheh Dam basin, Iran”. For this purpose, the “protection motivation theory (PMT)” was used to measure FDRMB. This theory consists of six variables i.e. “perceived vulnerability (PV)”, “perceived severity (PS)”, “self-efficacy (SE)”, “response cost (RC)”, “response efficacy (RC)”, and “intention (IN)”. This research included a descriptive-correlational and causal relationship that was conducted by a survey. The study population included farmers who were members in the water user association in downstream of Karkheh Dam (N = 3668), out of which, 350 users were sampled by Krejcie and Morgan's table and by the stratified random sampling method, respectively. In accordance with the PMT, for the variables affecting FDRMB a causal framework was designed. Findings from the path analysis indicated that the six variables in PMT might explain 0.473 of the FDRMB variance. Besides, SE had the highest effect in FDRMB (β = 0.503). As a general conclusion, policies need to make farmers take their own risk management decisions and have access to a variety of tools and strategies.

Response cost intervention program for Kannada-speaking preschool children who stutter: Case series

Introduction: Stuttering is reported to be highly prevalent in both children and adults, and has always drawn the attention of the clinicians and researchers. A vast body of literature exists on the intervention of stuttering in adults. However, research in the case of children who stutter (CWS) has gained momentum in the recent past. Research investigations in the past and clinical anecdotes have proven the potential benefits of early intervention. However, only a handful of the techniques have been explored. Response cost (RC) treatment is a widely adopted clinical approach with some positive evidence. The current study explored the effectiveness of RC treatment in preschool CWS. Methods: Participants were five children who stuttered in the age range of 3– 6 years. Spontaneous speech samples of all children were recorded both pre- and post-treatment. Recorded samples were analyzed for percentage of syllables stuttered (%SS), parent and clinician severity ratings, stuttering severity instrument (SSI)-4 scores, and naturalness ratings. Results: The results revealed a significant decrease in the %SS, severity ratings, and SSI-4 scores, and significant improvement in speech naturalness ratings in all the five participants. Conclusions: The study is the first one to document significant clinical improvement following RC intervention in Kannada-speaking preschool CWS. Future investigations with an experimental design, larger sample sizes, and monolingual as well as bilingual participants who stutter and multiple outcome variables are warranted.

Further evaluation of treatments for vocal stereotypy: Response interruption and redirection and response cost

The purpose of this study was to expand on research on treatments for stereotypy by evaluating the effects of response interruption and redirection (RIRD) and response cost (RC) alone and as a treatment package on vocal stereotypy. Treatment phases included RIRD, RC, and response interruption and redirection plus response cost (RIRD + RC). The efficacy of these treatments was determined by measuring duration of stereotypy in session and during treatment intervals. Vocal stereotypy decreased in all three treatment conditions; however, when data analysis included stereotypy occurring during treatment intervals, stereotypy during the RC condition occurred at similar levels as baseline for one treatment evaluation phase for Karl and both treatment evaluations phases for Jon. We discuss implications of these findings, limitations of the current study, and areas for future research.

Verbal-nonverbal interactions during a computerized adaptation of Catania et al.’s (1982) experimental task: The effects of embedding an aversive contingency in the nonverbal component

A computerized adaptation of the task designed by Catania et al. (1982) to study verbal-nonverbal interactions was developed. A random-interval random-ratio multiple schedule of reinforcement (MSR) operated on buttons appearing on the screen, which participants clicked to earn points exchangeable for money. Automatic shaping of verbal reports entailed multiple-schedule interruptions, during which participants completed blanks with guesses regarding multiple-schedule performance and earned points depending on the quality of their guesses. The study tested the adapted task and extended the notion that discriminative schedule control plays a role in verbal-nonverbal interactions (Torgrud & Holborn, 1990) by scheduling a response cost (RC) for high rates during the random-interval component. Sixteen participants were exposed to four conditions: MSR only; MSR+shaping; MSR+RC; and MSR+RC+shaping. Differential button-pressing rates were typically established during RC conditions and systematically preceded successful shaping of guesses. Differential responding ceased after removal of the RC, despite the fact that congruent guessing was previously established. This finding indicated poor verbal governance, and does not support the notion that low discriminative control promotes verbal control. RC produced random-ratio response rates that matched the low rates that were characteristic of random-interval performance. It is suggested that verbal-nonverbal interactions may be responsible for this effect.

Environmental enrichment and response cost: Immediate and subsequent effects on stereotypy

We assessed the immediate and subsequent effects of environmental enrichment (EE) as a stand-alone intervention and when EE was combined with response cost (RC) for 5 participants using a 2-component multiple-schedule design. Environmental enrichment failed to decrease any participant's immediate engagement in stereotypy; however, the addition of RC decreased the immediate engagement in stereotypy for all participants. After the withdrawal of EE plus RC, stereotypy did not immediately increase for 3 of 5 participants.

COMPARING THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF OTHER BEHAVIOR AND RESPONSE‐COST CONTINGENCIES ON TICS IN YOUTH WITH TOURETTE SYNDROME

Tics are rapid, repetitive, stereotyped movements or vocalizations that arise from neurobiological dysfunction and are influenced by environmental factors. Although persons with tic disorders often experience aversive social reactions in response to tics, little is known about the behavioral effects of such consequences. Along several dimensions, the present study compared the effects of two treatments on tics: response cost (RC) and differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO). Four children with Tourette syndrome were exposed to free-to-tic baseline, DRO, RC, and quasibaseline rebound evaluation conditions using an alternating treatments design. Both DRO and RC produced substantial decreases in tics from baseline levels. No differential effects of DRO and RC contingencies were seen on self-reported stress or in the strength of the reflexive motivating operation (i.e., premonitory urge) believed to trigger tics, and neither condition produced tic-rebound effects. Implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Strain differences in a high response-cost daily time–place learning task

Previous research has shown that rats, unlike birds, do not readily demonstrate daily time-place learning (TPL). It has been suggested, however, that rats are more successful at these tasks if the response cost (RC) is increased. Widman et al. (2000) found that female Sprague Dawley (SD) rats learned a daily TPL task in which they were required to climb different towers depending on the time of day to find a food reward. Using a similar apparatus, we found that male SD rats learned the task, while male Long Evans rats did not. While all rats quickly learned to restrict the majority of their searching to the two towers that provided food, only the SD rats learned to go to the correct location at the correct time of day. Thus, there appears to be a strain difference in the effectiveness of a high RC task to promote learning. Tests of the timing strategies used revealed individual differences with one rat using a circadian strategy and another using an ordinal strategy. Post criterion decrements in performance did not allow sufficient testing to determine the timing strategies of the remaining rats. Possible interactions between strain, response cost, species typical behaviors and dependent measures are discussed.

Treating Vocal Stereotypy With Environmental Enrichment and Response Cost

The authors describe the assessment and treatment of vocal stereotypy in two children diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder. Both the case studies evaluated the effectiveness of response cost (RC). The RC interventions quickly reduced and eventually eliminated the vocal stereotypy in one participant and reduced it to near-zero levels in the second. Postintervention probes for one participant confirmed the continued reduction of vocal stereotypy 1 month after treatment and its elimination 8 months after treatment. Directions for future research are also discussed.

A comparison of two multicomponent procedures to increase food consumption

We compared two procedural variations of response cost (RC) of preferred materials to increase mouth clean in a five-year-old boy diagnosed with autism. Noncontingent presentation of preferred materials (NCR) was compared to differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) when returning preferred materials once they have been removed for refusal or expulsion of food. Results indicated that both procedures increased swallowing and reduced problem behavior; however, NCR + RC was superior to DRA + RC with respect to overall mean and initial treatment measures. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Heart rate change in Type A and Type B males as a function of response cost and task difficulty.

ABSTRACTTonic changes in heart rate (HR) and somatic motor activity were monitored in 70 Type A and 70 Type B males to determine if these groups differ in psychologically‐mediated HR reactivity to a specific appetitive situation. A and B types were defined by extreme scores on the Jenkins Activity Survey. Subjects performed a continuous button‐pushing task during a practice trial and 4 trials involving high (loss of money), low (loss of points), or no response cost (RC) for performance failure, and high, moderate, low, or no levels of failure feedback on performance. Greater HR increases from practice were predicted for high RC vs. low RC, and for Type As vs. Type Bs. Additionally, in the high RC condition, HR was expected to diminish across trials more in those receiving high and low failure feedback compared with those receiving moderate failure feedback. Results confirmed the first two expectations. Furthermore, the HR difference between Type As and Type Bs was magnified under high RC conditions. The last expectation was not confirmed, but further analyses suggested that failure feedback influenced Type Bs but not Type As. Greater intrinsic appetitive motivation of Type As may account for their greater HR increase in response to opportunities for active avoidance, as well as for reward.

Response Cost and Reinforcement Contingencies of Managing the Behavior of Distractible Children in Tutorial Settings

The effects of differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) and response cost (RC) on the attending behavior of two distractible children were assessed in two case studies. In the first study, a seven-year-old learning disabled girl was initially rewarded for completing segments of her reader without looking away, then punished by the removal of a token contingent upon lookaways. Both contingencies were effective in reducing the frequency of lookaways although response suppression was slightly greater during the RC phases. Oral reading rates increased concurrently with the reduction in lookaways, and was highest during the RC phases. In the second case study, the same strategies were used with a ten-year-old, behaviorally disordered girl. The DRO contingency failed to control the frequency of her lookaways although the RC contingency proved successful. The differential effects of the DRO contingency in the two case studies were attributed to differences in the reinforcement schedules; the differential effect of the RC contingency was ascribed to the temporal precision with which it was administered.

Response cost: The removal of conditioned reinforcers for therapeutic change

Response cost (RC), a punishment procedure in which conditioned reinforcers (points, tokens, or money) are withdrawn to suppress a response, has been used as a behavior therapy technique on its own and in conjunction with reinforcement in token economies. Studies in both laboratory and clinical settings are reviewed. The following conclusions are made: (1) RC has suppressed a variety of behaviors (e.g., smoking, overeating, stuttering, psychotic talk) with diverse clinical populations (e.g., psychotics, sociopaths, retardates, school children); (2) Behaviors suppressed with RC often do not recover when the punishment contingency is withdrawn; and (3) Undesirable side effects frequently associated with punishment typically are not found with RC. The paucity of studies with long-term followup periods and careful examination of side effects makes the last two conclusions tentative. Aspects of RC which may contribute to its efficacy are discussed. These include cost magnitude, instructions, and informative feedback. Recommendations are made for increased use of RC as a behavior therapy technique.