Respect For International Law Research Articles

Implications of Russia- Ukraine War on World Peace and Security

The lingering tension between Ukraine and Russia have been visible since Ukraine gained its independence in 1991 not until 20 February, 2014 following the Ukraine’s revolution of dignity, and in February 2022 Russia lunched a full scale invasion of Ukraine. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine is the most violent interstate conflict in the world since the second invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan in 2003 and 2001 respectively by the United States of America. The paper examined the nature and causes of this war, and consequences of the war. The Qualitative method of data analysis through the use of Secondary sources of data was used in achieving the said objectives. The paper adopts the power theory as theoretical framework in investigating the nature of the war, remote and immediate causes of the war. The paper found out that the war is hybrid in nature and there are remote causes such as Ukraine’s sense of national identity, idiosyncrasy of the leaders’ involved and immediate causes such as Ukraine’s sovereignty, and status of Crimea, Donetsk, and Luhansk, international alliances, that triggered the occupation of Ukraine by Russia in February of 2022. The paper recommends that respect for a state’s sovereignty as enshrined in international law and United Nation’s charter should be a thing of national concern of both countries, that referendum should be considered especially with issues surrounding the status of Crimea. Also the paper recommends mutual tolerance and respect for international law, to avert plunging the world into avoidable crises of unimaginable proportion

Kedaulatan Negara Dalam Invasi Rusia Ke Ukraina Berdasarkan Hukum Internasional

Introduction: Russia's invasion of Ukraine gave rise to mixed opinions in the international community regarding the concept of state sovereignty, both in theory and practice.Purposes of the Research: The regulation of state sovereignty has experienced a conceptual shift according to international law and Russia's invasion of Ukraine has caused a shift in the concept of state sovereignty in international law.Methods of the Research: The research used is normative juridical, using an analytical perspective research type. The legal materials are primary, secondary and tertiary legal materials. The approaches used are the statutory approach, the conceptual approach and the case approach. The technique for collecting legal materials uses library research which is then analyzed qualitatively to answer the problems being studied.Results of the Research: The research results show that the concept of state sovereignty is experiencing changes and shifts in meaning according to developments over time. The revolutionary changes of the late 18th and 19th centuries gave rise to the concept of sovereignty which included the principle of equality of states and the principle of non-intervention in the internal affairs of other states as one of its important elements. Regarding the causes of Russia's invasion of Ukraine, it was influenced by various factors, including historical, political, economic, security and defense factors, as well as to protect pro-Russian separatist groups who wanted to separate themselves from Ukraine. Russia's invasion of Ukraine did not affect the shift in the concept of sovereignty as currently accepted by the international community in the modern ideology of sovereignty. On a theoretical and practical level, the will of the Russian state has great interests in carrying out actions that threaten peace, or violate peace by launching aggression against Ukraine as a sovereign state. Russia as a party to various international agreements has an obligation to respect international law where state sovereignty and equality between countries are recognized concepts and have become the basis of the international legal system

The Republic of Moldova and Transnistria: origin issues and ways of conflict resolution

This article outlines the genesis of the Transnistrian conflict, focusing on perceptions inside and outside Moldova and on a settlement process that has brought no substantial results. The lack of solution to the Transnistria issue poses wider questions about the usefulness of existing conflict resolution formats and processes. The approaches to resolving the conflict have created a misleading position that the issue is purely internal to Moldova, with Russia playing the role of impartial mediator and provider of peacekeeping forces. The Moldovan experience indicates that a sustainable solution to such conflicts, based on respect for international law and Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe principles and commitments, is impossible without a greater emphasis on the accountability of Russia. In this way the key to solving the conflict in line with international law and OSCE principles lies in Moscow and less in Chisinau or Tiraspol.

Separatism In The Perspective Of International Law And National Security: A Case Study Of The Armed Criminal Group (Kkb) In Papua

The separatist movement in Papua, known as the Armed Criminal Group (KKB), has been a phenomenon in recent years. The KKB is a group of armed individuals advocating for the independence of West Papua from Indonesia. They engage in a series of activities including attacks on security forces, extortion, facility burnings, and human rights violations. Addressing the separatist movement of the KKB in Papua involves efforts to resolve the conflict peacefully, promote dialogue, strengthen regional autonomy, and address the root causes of the conflict. Long-term solutions require collaboration between the Indonesian government, Papuan community leaders, and separatist groups willing to adopt peaceful political approaches and respect international law. This paper will investigate the issue of separatism in the context of international law, focusing on the case study of the armed criminal group in Papua. The research aims to analyze the international legal responses to separatist movements that employ violence and illegal methods to achieve their goals, involving the analysis of international law concerning state sovereignty, human rights, and enforcement of international law. The data used in this study includes international legal instruments in decision-making.

Indonesia's Foreign Policy in the Indo-Pacific Region in the 2023 ASEAN Chair

This research discusses Indonesia's foreign policy in the Indo-Pacific region during the ASEAN chairmanship period in 2023. This is Indonesia's fourth time as ASEAN chairman, after serving three times in 1967, 2003, and 2011. This research focuses on how Indonesia contributes to stability and peace in the Indo-Pacific region through its foreign political activities, especially through implementing the ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific (AOIP) document. The method used in this research is qualitative, with secondary data sources including books, journal articles, etc. The data collection technique is carried out through library research. Then, the research will be analyzed using qualitative data analysis techniques following the framework described by Miles and Huberman: data reduction, data presentation (data display), and drawing conclusions or verification (conclusion drawing/verification). The results show that Indonesia, in its chairmanship of ASEAN in 2023, wants to become a Regional Great Power that plays the role of norm-setting and norm-making. In ASEAN's chairmanship in 2023, one of the main focuses will be Indonesia's foreign policy activities in the Indo-Pacific region, which focuses on the implementation of AOIP, where Indonesia wants to encourage ASEAN's role in creating regional stability, peace, and progress and prosperity in the Indo-Pacific. ASEAN strives to embrace large countries to collaborate in the Indo-Pacific region by strengthening ASEAN centrality, openness, inclusiveness, transparency, and respect for international law. As part of this, Indonesia hosted the ASEAN Indo-Pacific Forum (AIPF) to strengthen regional cooperation and promote economic growth. This forum hopes to utilize principles such as ASEAN centrality, inclusiveness, and transparency to achieve a more peaceful and prosperous region.

The EU's strategic autonomy in times of politicisation of international trade: The future of commission accountability

AbstractTrade relations face unprecedented challenges, which has led to an increased politicisation and contestation of trade rules. In response, the EU has changed its trade policy under the motto ‘Open Strategic Autonomy’ towards a more assertive policy. The EU seeks to significantly expand its room of manoeuvre and to gain more autonomy by strengthening the enforcement of its trade rights and by ensuring more effectively, including unilaterally, a level playing field. This reorientation engenders several new or amended trade policy instruments, but meets with reservations as the renewed politicisation of EU trade policy will have internal consequences and raise demands for more democratic accountability of the European Commission. The new policy instruments will enlarge its leeway in trade policy. The future of the EU's multilateral, rule‐ instead of power‐oriented political stance becomes unclear, which might undermine its negotiation position in WTO reform and collide with the EU's respect for international law. The tensions of the EU's new hybrid approach with its international commitments even more fuel demands for increased accountability of the Commission as a safeguard against employing the new powers for protectionism and disrespect to international law. The contribution analyses the need for increased Commission accountability in the redirected trade policy.

The EU and the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict: The Forty-Four-Day War and Its Aftermath

The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan has long troubled the European Union’s (EU’s) neighbourhood. As a latecomer to the region, the EU played no role in the conflict in the 1990s. The subsequent establishment of bilateral relations with Armenia and Azerbaijan, including a closer engagement through the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) did not herald any significant changes in this respect. The bilateral relations with both countries advanced despite the military build-up, hostile rhetoric and periodic fighting. When another war erupted in September 2020, the EU was strikingly absent from the international scene in stark contrast to its rhetoric and pledges of the last two decades. Meanwhile, the Russian-brokered ceasefire did not resolve the conflict and led to further aggression demanding a more hands-on approach by the EU. In a welcome development, the EU undertook various efforts to engage the parties in a continuous dialogue for resolving the outstanding issues. In this context, the article argues for a more enhanced role of the EU in resolving this conflict based on a principled position in line with EU values and respect for international law. Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Armenia, Azerbaijan, EU, European Neighbourhood Policy, OSCE Minsk Group

법원의 인권합치적 법해석에 관하여

Supreme Court Full Bench Decision 2019Do2037 on April 21 2022 dealt with statutory interpretation of Military Criminal Act Article 92-6 which states that a person who commits an indecent act such as anal intercourse with any military personnel shall be punished by imprisonment with labor for not more than 2 years. The court overruled it’s prior ruling by declaring that the Article shall not be construed to include acts taking place in private places with mutual consent. It is of utmost importance to note that this case was decided against the background of Constitutional Court Decision 2012Hun-Ba258, July 28 2016 which held that ‘an indecent act’ of the Article is not void for vagueness and does not violate complaint’s right to sexual self determination, right to privacy, and personal liberty. Aforementioned Supreme Court Case provides a valuable opportunity to look into how the court should consider Human Rights in statutory interpretation, in other words, what the structure and function of Human Rights conforming interpretation consists of. This study suggests that Human Rights conforming interpretation is an interpretative principle that can be derived from requirements of Constitution conforming interpretation(verfassungskonforme Gesetzesauslegung) and respect for international law as provided by Artcle 6 (1) of the Constitution. Understood as an interpretative mandate guided by the fundamental rights and international human rights norms, it requires that the meaning given by the mandate should be preferred even if the initial meaning without consideration of the mandate is not identical with the former. As such, it can be characterized as micro-level, as well as weak-form of judicial review(as formulated by Mark Tushnet). The determining factors in Human Rights conforming interpretation can be summarized as the following: 1) whether multiple interpretations can be legitimately presented within the boundaries of the statutory language, 2) what is the nature of the doubt regarding rights violation, and 3) when such interpretation should be adopted in relation to the referral to the Constitutional Court. The Supreme Court Decision provides multiple opinions addressing these issues. The dissenting opinion differed from other opinions in stating that there are no multiple interpretations possible within the boundaries of the given statutory text. The court’s opinion and the separate opinions 1, 2 all agreed that other possible interpretations were available but disagreed on what those versions actually were. The right to sexual self determination and equal treatment violations were well argued by the court’s opinion, but it would be more adequate to consider it to be an establishment of legitimate doubt on rights violation rather than the final judgment as the Constitutional Court would present its rulings. Human Rights conforming interpretation requires a disciplined sense of interpretive practice as well as an understanding that statutory interpretations operate in a sphere closely related to the goals of respect, protection and fulfillment of Human Rights. Provided that these conditions are met, it might be able to secure a middle ground standing inbetween democratic legislative process and strong form constitutional review.

The Republic of Poland in the United Nations Security Council (2018 – 2019) and the Ukrainian Question

The purpose of the paper is to highlight the activities of the representatives of the Republic of Poland in the UN Security Council in the status of a non-permanent member in 2018-2019, in particular regarding the resolving of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict. The method of content analysis of state program documents, Internet portals of the government of the Republic of Poland and the United Nations, and scientific literature was used in the implementation of the goal. The problem-chronological method made it possible to trace the history of the participation of the Republic of Poland in the UN. The methodology is based on the principles of historicism and objectivity. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the new understanding of the role of Polish diplomacy in the UN Security Council after the occupation of Crimea and the start of Russia's hybrid war in Donbas. The analysis made it possible to formulate the following conclusions. The Republic of Poland – one of the founding states of the UN – tried to be an active member of the organization, including by participating in the work of its main bodies. Poland was elected a non-permanent member of the Security Council six times. The main priorities of Polish diplomacy at the UN Security Council in 2018-2019 included: respect for international law, protection of civilians in armed conflicts, peace and security in Eastern Europe. Much attention was paid to the issue of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict, which, thanks to the Polish side, did not disappear from the body's agenda and was discussed in various contexts. The Polish delegates consistently reminded about the negative impact of the violation of international law and agreements by the Russian Federation, the situation in the occupied territories of Crimea and Donbas, and in the Black and Azov seas. They tried to present the consequences of the occupation of Crimea and the war in Donbas not only as a problem of regional security, but also as a global challenge to the international legal order. The Polish state made a significant contribution to the formation and strengthening of the international coalition in support of Ukraine in countering the aggression of the Russian Federation. An obstacle to an effective resolution of the Ukrainian issue was primarily the specificity and composition of the UN Security Council, where non-permanent members play only a limited role, and one of the permanent members is an aggressor country. The example of the debate surrounding the resolution of the Ukrainian issue once again proves the deficit of UN deep reform

The UN75 Declaration, Our Common Agenda and the development of international law

AbstractIn the declaration on the commemoration of the seventy-fifth anniversary of the United Nations, Member States requested that the Secretary-General provide recommendations to advance “Our Common Agenda” and to respond to current and future challenges. The Secretary-General issued a report entitled “Our Common Agenda” on 5 August 2021, which, among others, reinforces the role of the United Nations as a place of choice for the development of international law, also putting in context the role and specific prerogatives of the Secretary-General in the promotion of international law. The declaration and “Our Common Agenda” have also presented an opportunity to counter sentiments regarding a supposed general decline in respect for international law.

The European Peace Facility and the UN Arms Trade Treaty: Fragmentation of the International Arms Control law?

Abstract In March 2021, the European Council set up the European Peace Facility (EPF), to serve as a legal instrument for the provision of security and peace assistance measures. It includes the supply of military and defence-related equipment to the European Union’s partner countries worldwide. The official aim of the EPF is to prevent conflict, preserve peace and strengthen international security and stability. The European Council assures its Member States that these measures will be accompanied by risk assessments and legal safeguards that respect international law, and comply with arms export control laws. However, the EPF’s biggest challenge is circumnavigating the United Nations Arms Trade Treaty (ATT), which primarily aims to prevent the diversion of and illicit trade in conventional arms. This article examines the legality of the EPF’s assistance measures by referring to the ATT, and the law of international responsibility. This timely analysis will be relevant to policymakers and lawyers responsible for regulating the international transfer of conventional arms.

‘Bury Me Not, I Pray Thee, in Egypt: But I Will Lie with My Fathers’

Abstract This article argues that certain legal duties of states involved in armed conflicts confer legal and moral rights on both the combatants and their families. The combatant is entitled to the right to be identified and buried, and the families are entitled, not only to receive information about the treatment of their dead relatives, but also to make decisions in this regard. These decisions relate to the rituals of burial and cremation and even the place of burial, which in some cases implies a right to demand repatriation of remains. The arguments are based on both ethical and legal grounds. Yet, apart from the right to be buried in a dignified way, rights regarding the nature and place of burial are not absolute. They can be limited according to a variety of considerations, including State policies and interests. The article also refers to the special case of dead combatants’ remains held by non-state actors that do not respect international law prescriptions regarding the dead. Under these circumstances, families have a stronger case to demand repatriation of remains as this would be the only way to secure the core right of the combatant to be respectfully buried.

Роль Amnesty International в системі міжнародних відносин

The article examines the history of the international human rights organization Amnesty International, which since its inception has been constantly working around the world to stop human rights violations. The activity of this international organization from the moment of its foundation to the present is described. The covered Amnesty International’s fight against the abolition of the death penalty, protection of sexual rights, fight against discrimination to protect the rights of migrants and refugees, fight against apartheid, protection from torture, etc. The role of the international non-governmental organization Amnesty International in the system of global governance from its creation to the present period is analyzed. Emphasis is placed on the activities of this international organization in Ukraine. Amnesty International has investigated and covered issues in Ukraine such as torture and ill-treatment in the army and prisons, the case of Georgy Gongadze and other journalists, and called on Ukraine to end criminal charges against journalists. With the beginning of the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine, Amnesty International has focused the world’s attention on the problem of the war in Ukraine. The author concludes that, despite the contradictory nature of its activities, this international organization has played and continues to play an important role in world politics. Today, it is one of the most famous and influential non-governmental organizations in the world. It investigates violations and abuses whenever and wherever, and requires governments and corporations to comply with their obligations and respect international law.

Szczątki ludzkie w azjatyckich muzeach a prawa ludności rdzennej

The work concerns the restitution of museum remains as a special cultural asset found in archaeological museums. The research problem concerns reverence towards human remains constituting museum exhibits on the example of Singapore museums. This type of museum inventory has become the subject of intensified restitution activities on the part of tribal minorities, indigenous peoples, who claim the right to them based on the right to worship after their deceased ancestors, the right to protect cultural, religious, and traditional heritage. Such law is based particularly on the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The research objective focuses, first of all, on the legal grounds resulting from the Declaration, and secondly, on the analysis of the inventory of selected Singaporean museums, which contain exhibits that are human remains in their collections. The main research hypothesis focuses on the statement that Singapore, as one of the few Asian countries, maintains a special regime of pietism towards the deceased, which is manifested in the way of treating and storing human remains as museum exhibits. It may be due to the country’s cultural conditions on the one hand, and religious and legal conditions on the other. That, in turn, translates into the approach of museums to restitution claims, which are increasingly being put forward by representatives of indigenous peoples in connection with the return of the remains of their deceased ancestors. These claims find their legal basis in acts of international law and collective human rights. Therefore, the work answers the questions whether museums in Singapore duly respect international law in protecting human remains and the rights of indigenous peoples, and how this translates into reverence for this type of exhibits in museum practices in connection with ICOM regulations.

Humanitarian diplomacy

Problem setting. Ensuring constant access to humanitarian aid during military conflicts and complex emergencies has always been an important issue for politicians. Its solution is to guarantee the protection of civilians in times of danger and political instability. The practice of humanitarian negotiations led to the emergence of the concept of humanitarian diplomacy in the early 2000s. It was to persuade community leaders and high-ranking decision-makers to act in the interests of vulnerable populations in accordance with humanitarian principles. Humanitarian diplomacy is carried out by humanitarian actors and includes the organization of a safe presence of humanitarian organizations, access to negotiations with the civilian population, monitoring assistance programs, and respect for international law. The development of humanitarian aspects of diplomacy is linked to the protection of the most vulnerable groups – ethnic and religious minorities, women, children, refugees, victims of armed conflict, terrorism and environmental disasters. An important task facing scholars is to study the nature of diplomacy, the history of its development, as well as modern models and tools. Scholars draw attention to the need to return in international relations to the philosophy of morality and values. In our opinion, it is expedient to define the concept of humanitarian diplomacy, to show the formation and development of humanitarian diplomacy and the institute of humanitarian law, to consider the problems of humanitarian activity in the modern world. Analysis of recent researches and publications. K. Schmitt, H. Arendt, M. Foucault, D. Agamben, D. Butler, ES Gromoglasova, TV Zonova, OF Rusakova studied the strategic dimension of humanitarian diplomacy and humanitarian law in their works. In addition, the famous works of domestic scientists such as VF Antipenko, M. Gnatovsky, V. Gutnik, T. Korotky, A. Talalaev, O. Tiunov, I. Lukashuk, J. Zhukorska and others. Target of research is to define the concept of “humanitarian diplomacy”, analyze the historical development of the concept of humanitarian law and diplomacy, describe the current problems of functioning. Article’s main body. The article examines the prerequisites and features of the formation of humanitarian diplomacy and humanitarian law. The authors try to give a modern definition of “humanitarian diplomacy, analyze the historical development of the concept of international humanitarian law and diplomacy.” The role of international organizations in the implementation of humanitarian aid to vulnerable groups during armed conflicts is highlighted, the current problems of humanitarian diplomacy are described. Conclusions and prospects for the development. Given the above, the authors can conclude that the ways of formation and development of humanitarian diplomacy were quite difficult. Only in the middle of the XIX century were the norms and principles on the basis of which vulnerable groups are protected; the first international legal acts of humanitarian law were adopted; international organizations have sprung up to provide humanitarian assistance to all those in need. In modern conditions, in our opinion, humanitarian diplomacy is becoming a key element in providing assistance to all vulnerable groups, which is provided by many actors, such as states, international organizations, ordinary people and their initiatives.

¿Límites de tratados internacionales al poder constituyente? Análisis del caso chilenoLimits of international treaties to the constituent power? Analysis of the Chilean case

Abstract Chile is undergoing a constituent process to replace its Constitution. Within the rules that regulate the process, it is established that the text of the new Constitution must respect the international treaties ratified by Chile. Some authors have pointed out that this rule entails a substantive limit to the process underway. This paper argues that the rule has another constitutional function: to ensure the exclusive dedication of the Constitutional Convention. It does not follow, however, that international treaties —especially human rights treaties— will not serve as a standard or guideline for the process. Such soft approach, which is a way to respect international law, is fully consistent with a democratic version of the constituent power.

ЦИВИЛИЗАЦИОННЫЕ ВЫЗОВЫ КАК ФАКТОР ДЕСТАБИЛИЗАЦИИ СОЦИУМА

The purpose of the study is to identify a number of relevant socio-cultural challenges of modern civilization, to search for civilized norms of communicative behavior in the field of cross-cultural relations. The methodological basis of the research.  The authors consider the concept of civilizational challenges. The research is integrative in nature and determined by a compatible approach. The basis of the methodology is a systematic approach, founded on the ideas and theoretical developments of the profound scientists of the modern period. Research results. The article provides an analysis of the new situation, not yet available in the experience of generations and characterized by the consequences that need to be predicted, in the face of the destabilizing factors of forced self-isolation caused by COVID-19. The need for a civilizational dialogue founded on an open and non-discriminatory basis as well as on respect for international law will be able to contribute to the stabilization of relations and the positive development of civilizations and cultures.     Prospects of the study. It is important to study new civilizational challenges, which need to be predicted, in the conditions of destabilizing factors of modern society, to describe the main destructive events and processes which are more typical of modern civilization.

Temporary application of international treaties: legal aspects

Problem setting. Nowadays the problem of the provisional application of treaties can be described as actual. It is no accident that it has been the subject of the attention of the United Nations International Law Commission with the task of elaborating the most important problems of international law. Furthermore, the above-mentioned subsidiary body of the United Nations General Assembly recognized the need to analyze the provisional application of treaties, the need for the progressive development and codification of international law in respect of the topic dealt with in this article. Аnalysis of research and publications. Aspects of the problem of provisional application of treaties are reflected primarily in the works of in the works of I.I. Lukashuk, O.V. Kyivets, O.V. Pushniak, I.I. Maryniv, T. Leber. Target of research is to describe the legal institution of the provisional introduction of international treaties and to find reasons for its use. Article’s main body. The article is devoted to the question of the temporary use of an international treaty as a fundamental institution of international law. The study discusses the need for provisional application of treaties. Attention was paid to the works of legal academics, who had considered this issue, their works and summaries were reviewed regarding the question under consideration. The author analyzed the formulations of the article 25 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. Legal aspects and shortcomings were considered. First of all, it was noted that there is no definition of the temporary application of international treaties in the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties and article 25 of the Convention had been criticized for being difficult to understand and lacking legal precision. In the article, the author noted that in general, the provisional use takes place before the entry into force of the treaty, when countries have not yet completed the necessary internal state procedures for its entry into force and have not internationally expressed consent to be bound. The author also stressed that the application of the treaty before it enters into force or will enter in the moment when it is implemented, the parties will address to their commitments and thus the object of the treaty would disappear. The author highlighted another legal aspect of the international legal institution under consideration is that, in order to implement the institution of provisional application of treaties, A special law and regulations may be enacted in domestic law (constitutional and legislative). What is more, the author mentioned that it is appropriate to devote attention to the work of the father of the national science on the law of international treaties I.I. Lukashuk. Conclusions. The author concluded that the institution of the provisional use of treaties is one of the key institutions in the law of treaties enabling the parties to urgently address cooperation issues. Another conclusion of the author of this article is that countries resort to this legal instrument under consideration for several reasons: urgent resolution of issues to which the relevant treaties apply; the desire of countries to adopt and immediately implement confidence-building measures; preventing time gaps in the operation of a number of international treaties, which have been successively adopted and replace each other on the same subject.

City Hall v. The World – Seeking New Paradigms for Foreign Missions Municipal Taxation

Studies of international law and cities have been attracting the attention of scholars and policy makers alike in attempts to understand the complex nature of the central versus municipal government relationship in respect of international legally binding frameworks. One example of such an intricate relationship is the implementation of treaty and customary international law in respect of taxation of foreign missions. Alongside the importance of the issue to the day to day life and functioning of international relations it can present challenges to policy and decision makers of various layers of government.
 The paper offers an analysis of the foreign missions’ taxation case study in the context of the theme of law and international law and the city. Discussion focuses on the basics of the applicable regimes and their history and rationales, as well as on the dilemmas associated with more contemporary forms of municipal taxes. Aiming for developing means to address the challenges presented, a new paradigm is offered, focusing on new methodologies to bring cities to the table to discuss together with state actors how to optimize the balance between the need to facilitate bilateral cross-border relationships and the needs of cities and residents.
 In the final stage of the debate, the paper offers potential lessons which can learned from the analysis of the foreign missions’ taxation case study for engagement of cities and states in international policy and law making for central and municipal government. The modality offered can hopefully facilitate the development of processes conducive to enhanced cooperation between cities and states in making and implementing better and more balanced international law. 

Jurisdiction Of A Country’s Air Territorry In International Law Perspective

The sovereignty of a country is no longer absolute or absolute, but at certain limits it must respect the sovereignty of other countries, which are regulated through international law. This is what became known as the relative sovereignty of the state. In the context of international law, a sovereign state must essentially obey and respect international law, as well as the sovereignty and territorial integrity of other countries. The problem in this research is How is the JURISDICTION of a country's airspace? What are the principles of air law adopted by nations in the world (internationally)? How is the JURISDICTION of a country's airspace in the perspective of international law? Its basic function is to show the way to solve research problems. The airspace contained above the land area, inland waters, and territorial sea is included in the jurisdiction of a country. This can be seen from article 1 of the Chicago Convention 1944 concerning International Civil Aviation: "State sovereignty in the air space above its territorial area is complete and exclusive sovereignity". This provision is one of the main pillars of international law governing air space. The principles of international air law include the principle of airspace sovereignty, the principle of JURISDICTION of air space, and the principle of responsibility. The principles in jurisdiction are the principle of territorial, national, passive personality, protection or security, universality, and crime according to applicable legal criteria. In relation to state jurisdiction in airspace, very closely related to law enforcement in the airspace. With jurisdiction, the country concerned has the authority and responsibility in the air to carry out law enforcement in air space.