Resin Secretion Research Articles

An Ethnographic Research on Gulal Gota

Lac, a resinous secretion from female scale insects, has played a significant role in India’s culture and economy since ancient times, with mentions in Vedic texts and the Mahabharata. This study examines the Manihaar community of Jaipur, known for their expertise in crafting lac bangles and Gulal Gotas—lac spheres filled with colors for Holi. Through qualitative interviews, it explores their craftsmanship, daily lives, and challenges in preserving their tradition amidst modernization. The findings emphasize the cultural importance of lac and the need for government support to protect India's artisanal heritage.

Euphorbium total triterpenes improve Freund's complete adjuvant-induced arthritis through PI3K/AKT/Bax and NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathways.

Euphorbium is the resinous secretion of Euphorbia resinifera Berg. According to the record, Euphorbium was first used by Roman doctors to treat the emperor's joint pain. In China, it is applied in folk medicine to treat damp-cold or mucous diseases, such as arthralgia and ascites, etc. This herb is used for rheumatoid arthritis and skin tumors in the folklore of northeastern Brazil. Triterpenes are mainly characteristic constituents of Euphorbium, and possibly possess anti-rheumatoid arthritis. To explore the preventive effect of Euphorbium total triterpenes (TTE) on Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA) induced arthritis in rats and its mechanism. TTE was extracted and isolated from Euphorbium, and its components were analyzed by HPLC. The safety of TTE was evaluated by an acute toxicity test in mice. Arthritis was induced in rats by injecting 0.2mL FCA into the right hind paw toe, except for the control group, which was given the same volume of physiological saline. Tripterygium Glycosides (TG, 7.5mg/kg) and TTE (32, 64 and 128mg/kg) were administered by gavage for 30 days. Body weights, paw swelling, and arthritic scores were measured during the experiment process. After 30 days, blood and joints were harvested to determine various indicators of arthritis. The contents of euphol and euphorbol in TTE were 47.03% and 18.77% respectively, and the maximal feasible dose of TTE in mice is 12 g/kg. The experimental results showed that arthritis indicators in rats deteriorated after FCA inducement compared with the control group. After treatment with TTE, the swelling degree and histopathological change of the hind paws in rats were significantly improved as well as arthritic score; the serum TNF-α, CRP, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-18 and RF levels in rats were significantly reduced; The expression of PI3K, AKT, P-AKT, Bcl-2, NF-κB, NLRP3 and Pro-caspase-1 protein in joint tissue were down-regulated, and the expression of Bax protein was up-regulated. The results suggested that TTE possessed anti-arthritis effects, and its mechanism may be related to its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, as well as regulation of PI3K/AKT/Bax and NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathway.

Chios mastic gum: A validated method towards authentication

Chios mastic gum (CMG) is the resinous secretion obtained as a trunk exudate from Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia. Apart from being an acknowledged phytotherapeutic agent, mastic is also a PDO product of significant economic value, since it finds numerous applications in the cosmetics, food, and food supplements’ industries. Due to its low annual production and high market demand, CMG has often fallen victim to adulteration with other, inferior quality products and packaging falsification. In an attempt to establish an analytical platform for the quality control of CMG and related products, the current work emphasizes on the development and validation of a reliable, robust and simple HPLC-ELSD methodology for the determination of masticadienonic and isomasticadienonic acids, CMG’s major triterpenes, in samples containing mastic. The method was employed to the analysis of eight authentic CMG samples, one inauthentic mastic sample and four commercial food supplements.

Triterpenoids from Chios mastic gum of Pistacia lentiscus and their inhibition of LPS-induced NO production in RAW 264.7 cells

A phytochemical investigation of mastic, the resinous secretion obtained from the wounds of the trunk and branches of Pistacia lentiscus, led to the isolation of six undescribed triterpenoids (1–6), including two unusual nor-dammarane-type triterpenoids (1 and 2), four tirucallane-type triterpenoids (3–6), together with seven known compounds (7–13). The structures of those undescribed compounds were elucidated by integrating spectroscopic analyses, including NMR, UV, IR, as well as HR-MS data. The absolute configurations of compounds 1 and 2 were confirmed by electronic circular dichroism. Anti-inflammatory evaluation revealed that compounds 5, 8, 9, and 12 exhibited moderate inhibition of the nitric oxide production in RAW264.7 cells with IC50 values ranging from 20.24 to 36.63 μM, compared to that of positive control, dexamethasone (IC50 = 19.85 μM).

Effects on community composition and function Pinus massoniana infected by Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

Pine wilt disease (PWD) is a worldwide forest disease caused by pine wood nematode (PWN). In this article, we investigated the composition, organization, correlation, and function of the endophytic microbial community in Pinus massoniana field with and without PWN. Samples were taken from branches, upper, middle, and lower trunks, as well as soil, from both healthy and infected trees. The results showed that the fungal diversity of healthy pines is around 1.1 times that of infected pines, while the bacterial diversity is about 0.75 times that of infected pines at the OTUs level. An increase of the abundance of pathogenic fungus such as Saitozyma, Graphilbum, Diplodia, Candida, Pseudoxanthomonas, Dyella and Pantoea was witnessed in infected pines according to the result of LEfSe. Furthermore, Ophiostoma and saprophytic fungus such as Entomocorticium, ganoderma, tomentella, entomocorticium were exclusively prominent in infected pines, which were substantially and highly connected with other species (p < 0.05), indicating the trees’ vulnerability and making the wood blue. In healthy pines, the top three functional guilds are parasites, plant pathogens, and saprotrophs. Parasites (36.52%) are primarily found in the branches, plant pathogens (29.12%) are primarily found in the lower trunk, and saprotrophs (67.88%) are primarily found in the upper trunk of disease trees. Pines’ immunity is being eroded due to an increase in the quantity and types of diseases. PICRUSt2 research revealed that NADH or NADPH, as well as carbon-nitrogen bonds, were more abundant in healthy pines, but acid anhydrides and transferring phosphorus-containing groups were more abundant in infected pines. The shift in resin secretion lowers the tree’s potential and encourages pine wilt and mortality. In total, PWN may have disrupted the microbiological ecology and worked with the community to hasten the demise of pines.

A Multitarget Approach to Evaluate the Efficacy of Aquilaria&nbsp;sinensis Flower Extract against Metabolic Syndrome.

Aquilaria sinensis (Lour.) Spreng is known for its resinous secretion (agarwood), often secreted in defense against injuries. We investigated the effects of A. sinensis flower extract (AF) on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors alpha and gamma (PPARα and PPARγ), liver X receptor (LXR), glucose uptake, and lipid accumulation (adipogenesis). Activation of PPARα, PPARγ and LXR was determined in hepatic (HepG2) cells by reporter gene assays. Glucose uptake was determined in differentiated muscle (C2C12) cells using 2-NBDG (2-deoxy-2-[(7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl)amino]-D-glucose). Adipogenesis was determined in adipocytes (3T3-L1 cells) by Oil red O staining. At a concentration of 50 µg/mL, AF caused 12.2-fold activation of PPARα and 5.7-fold activation of PPARγ, while the activation of LXR was only 1.7-fold. AF inhibited (28%) the adipogenic effect induced by rosiglitazone in adipocytes and increased glucose uptake (32.8%) in muscle cells at 50 μg/mL. It was concluded that AF acted as a PPARα/γ dual agonist without the undesired effect of adipogenesis and exhibited the property of enhancing glucose uptake. This is the first report to reveal the PPARα/γ dual agonistic action and glucose uptake enhancing property of AF along with its antiadipogenic effect, indicating its potential in ameliorating the symptoms of metabolic syndrome.

Ethnomedicinal, Pharmacological and Commercial Perspectives of Laccifer lacca Body Exudate (LBE)

Nature-derived products have been serving humanity from ancient times in many aspects such as food (honey &amp; wax products from bees), textiles (silk from silkworms), and various kinds of pollination in flowering plants. Undoubtedly, people cannot forget their benefits to our daily life, except above benefits insects have a great potential in the form of folklore medicines. LBE is a resinous secretion of a scale insect commonly known as Lac Insect (L. lacca) as a protective coating on the outer surface of many kinds of trees, including Ber (Ziziphus marutiana), Kusum (Schleichera oleosa), Palas (Butea monosperma syn. frondosa). The review highlights the coverage of natural product chemistry and ethnomedicinal and commercial perspectives on natural products obtained from LBE because of recent literature exploration.

Tracing the migration and transformation of metabolites in xylem during wood growth by mass spectrometry imaging.

Metabolites in the xylem experience several migration and transformation processes during tree growth. Their composition and distributions can reflect the environment that the wood lived through. Herein, a matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging method was developed to investigate the migration and transformation of metabolites in the xylem during heartwood formation and after mechanical injury. The thickness of the wood slice, the type of matrix and its manner of deposition were optimized to improve ionization response and spatial resolution. The mass difference correlation (MDC) data processing method was proposed to improve the efficiency of compound identification, in which the compounds were classified by their molecular weight. The compound species was identified by results calculated using MDC and the experimental results from MS/MS. The directly identified metabolites, whose type and number were found to be quite different between sapwood and heartwood, demonstrated the transformation and migration of metabolites from sapwood to heartwood. Additionally, two kinds of resins produced from different positions were identified by MSI simultaneously, even though their heterogeneous distribution was not visible in optical images. The origin and type of the two resins were deduced from the identified compounds and their molecular distribution. This work provides a method to directly reveal metabolite migration and transformation mechanisms in xylem during wood growth.

​Pigeon Pea [Cajanus cajan (L.)]: New Promising Host of Lac [Kerria lacca (Kerr)] in Southern Rajasthan

Background: Lac is a resin secretion of insects [Kerria lacca (Kerr)], which are commercially cultivated through ages. Lac cultivation has its roots in India and a major source of economy to the local populace. Though different lac hosts have been recorded in Rajasthan, but it is not cultivated commercially. Pigeonpea crop could be utilized for encouraging lac cultivation in the region and yield losses can be compensated by additional income received from lac resin. Methods: The experiment on “Studies on Economics and Yield Attributing Parameters of Lac Cultivation on Yield of Pigeonpea, Cajanus cajan (L.) in Southern Rajasthan” was conducted on Rangeeni strain of lac insect in Baisakhi season at lac insect gene bank cum garden situated at Department of Entomology, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur during 2019-20 and 2020-21 respectively. The life cycle of Rangeeni strain of lac insect were studied on pigeonpea sown in last week of August in plot size measuring 2 × 10 sq m during Baisakhi season of both year. Result: The study revealed that the mean initial settlement density of lac insect on pigeonpea ranged from 67.53 to 84.20 with 4.27 to 5.27 (per sq. cm) mature female cell density during successive years. The mean per cent settlement was found to be the maximum (91.78 and 91.15%) at lower portion of the pigeonpea plant during respective years. The duration of sex differentiation ranged from 48.23 to 49.10 days for both successive years. The benefit cost ratio was also higher (1.95 and 2.09) in lac inoculated experiment then the sole seed crop (control) of pigeon pea (1.84 and 1.35) in season 2019-20 and 2020-21, respectively. All the parameter revealed that pigeon pea is economically efficient host for the Rangeeni strain of lac in agro-climatic region of southern Rajasthan.

Zein–resin composite nanoparticles with coencapsulated carvacrol

This paper evaluated the potential of zein–resins nanoparticles to act as a carrier for water-insoluble oil carvacrol. The rosin and shellac were used as natural resins in different mass ratios to plant protein zein. Rosin is one of the natural gums. Shellac is a resinous secretion of the insect. The influence of nanoparticle composition on colloidal properties, encapsulation efficiency, and release of oil was studied. Zeta potential and size of thus prepared nanoparticles were studied. Carvacrol encapsulation efficiency and release were determined by the HPLC method developed for these compounds. Results showed that the resin type and share affect encapsulation efficiency and release of carvacrol. It was also shown that the addition of resins enhanced release from nanoparticles, compared to plain zein nanoparticles. Findings in the present work will help further understanding the interaction between alcohol–soluble biopolymers and provide new insight into the development of natural carriers for bioactive compounds. Novelty impact statement Natural polymers derived from food are considered desirable materials for constructing delivery systems to encapsulate, protect, and release bioactive components in nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, and food. Therefore, this paper is approached to fabricate the carvacrol-loaded zein/rosin (Z/R) and zein/shellac (Z/S) composite nanoparticles (NPs). Findings in the present work will help further understanding of the interaction between alcohol–soluble biopolymers (e.g., zein, rosin, and shellac) and provide new insight into the development of natural carriers for bioactive compounds.

Early detection of pine wilt disease using deep learning algorithms and UAV-based multispectral imagery

Pine wilt disease (PWD) is a global devastating threat to forest ecosystems. Therefore, a feasible and effective approach to precisely monitor PWD infection is indispensable, especially at the early stages. However, a precise definition of “early stage” and a rapid and high-efficiency method to detect PWD infection have not been well established. In this study, we systematically divided the PWD infection into green, early, middle, and late stages based on the needle color, the resin secretion, and whether the pine wood nematode (PWN) was carried. Simultaneously, an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) equipped with multispectral cameras was used to obtain images. Two target detection algorithms (Faster R-CNN and YOLOv4) and two traditional machine learning algorithms based on feature extraction (random forest and support vector machine) were employed to realize the recognition of infected pine trees. Moreover, we took into consideration of the influence of green broad-leaved trees on the identification of pine trees at the early stage of PWD infection. We obtained the following results: (1) the accuracy of Faster R-CNN (60.98–66.7%) was higher than that of YOLOv4 (57.07–63.55%), but YOLOv4 outperformed in terms of model size, processing speed, training time, and testing time; (2) although the traditional machine learning models had higher accuracy (73.28–79.64%), they were not able to directly identify the object from the images; (3) the accuracy of early detection of PWD infection showed an increase of 3.72–4.29%, from 42.36–44.59% to 46.08–48.88%, when broad-leaved trees were considered. In this study, the combination of UAV-based multispectral images and target detection algorithms allowed us to monitor the occurrence of PWD and obtain the distribution of infected trees at an early stage, which can provide technical support for the prevention and control of PWD.

Amber from a Tyrannosaurus rex bonebed (Saskatchewan, Canada) with implications for paleoenvironment and paleoecology

The Frenchman Formation (Maastrichtian) exposed within Chambery Coulee in southwestern Saskatchewan, Canada, has yielded exceptional vertebrate fauna specimens, including one of the largest known Tyrannosaurus rex individuals. The site has excellent preservation of a rich and diverse paleobotanical assemblage containing amber, which is analyzed in detail and compared to other sources of paleoecological data herein. Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy of the fossil resin suggests a botanical source among the Cupressaceae (cypress trees). The ecological requirements of the crocodilians imply a mean annual temperature of 16 °C, which is slightly higher than previous estimates based on paleobotanical analyses. Stable isotope analyses of amber in the deposit provided insight into the environment and the ecological conditions at the time of resin secretion. The δD values showed a marine enrichment that suggests proximity to oceanic waters, and by extension, strong influence of the Western Interior Seaway in the region during the latest Cretaceous. The carbon isotope composition might also indicate that a potential ecological stress affected the trees such as a drought. These results highlight the interest of including amber in bonebed studies: even in the absence of identifiable inclusions, valuable paleoenvironmental, paleoecological, and even paleogeographic clues can be derived from chemical analyses of fossil resins.

Development, Validation and Application of a UHPLC-MS Method for the Quantification of Chios Mastic Gum Triterpenoids in Human Plasma

AbstractChios mastic gum is the resinous secretion obtained from the barks of the shrub Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia, which is endemic to the Greek island of Chios. Since antiquity, Chios mastic gum has found several uses as a phytotherapeutic remedy, primarily for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders while recently, Chios mastic gum was also recognized by EMA as an herbal medicinal product with specific indications. Chios mastic gumʼs biological properties are attributed to triterpenes which comprise the major chemical group (approx. 70%) and notably isomasticadienonic acid and masticadienonic acid. However, due to their structural characteristics, the isolation thereof in high yield and purity is challenging and since they are not commercially available, pharmacological studies aiming to assess their biological properties are limited. In the present work, masticʼs phytochemical investigation by UPLC-HRMS is followed by the isolation and characterization of isomasticadienonic acid and masticadienonic acid to be used as analytical standards for their accurate and reliable quantification in human plasma. A UHPLC-tQ-MS method that was developed and validated (in terms of specificity, linearity, limit of quantification, accuracy and precision), for the direct quantification of the targeted compounds in the low ng/mL range of concentration, was subsequently implemented on plasma samples of healthy volunteers thus demonstrating its fitness for purpose. The results presented herein might provide insight to the understanding of this traditional natural product consumed notably for its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and lipid lowering properties. Moreover, this method might serve as a starting point for any study aiming to monitor bioactive triterpenes in biological fluids.

Wood-inhabiting macromycete communities in spruce stands on former agricultural land

Wood-inhabiting macromycete (WIM) communities in the ecosystem of uneven-aged spruce stands growing on former agricultural land were investigated in relation to the supply of wood substrate, degree of wood rot, and selected climatic and ecological conditions. Altogether, 58 WIM species were detected at research plots during 2016–2018. The abundance of fruiting bodies and WIM species richness increased from the youngest to the oldest forest stands. The highest numbers of fruiting body abundance were recorded for Gymnopus perforans (11 756), Hypholoma fasciculare (2 971), Coprinellus disseminatus (326), Exidia pithya (318) and Panellus mitis (147). The influence of stand age on WIM abundance was highly significant (P &amp;lt; 0.001), WIM abundance was not affected by precipitation (P &amp;gt; 0.05). The relationships between abundance and air temperature (P &amp;lt; 0.001), species richness and precipitation (P &amp;lt; 0.001), species richness and air temperature (P &amp;lt; 0.001) were highly significant. The most frequent damage to trees was caused by insects and forest animals (81%), which resulted in a high occurrence of resin secretion (70%). The total volume of coarse wood debris (CWD) and the decay rate were not statistically dependent. We confirmed the occurrence of Heterobasidion annosum s.s., H. abietinum s.s., H. parviporum s.s., Armillaria ostoyae s.s. and A. cepistipes s.s. by use of molecular genetic analyses.

Resin yield in Pinus elliottii Engelm. is related to the resin flow rate, resin components and resin duct characteristics at three locations in southern China

In pine species, resin ducts are the specialized secretory structures to synthesize and store resin. Resin terpenes finds broad applications in pharmaceutical, chemical, biofuel, and food fields. Previous slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) breeding programs mainly focused on improvements in growth and wood properties in China. The incorporation of resin production into selective slash pine tree breeding occurred rarely, as standard tapping method to identify high-resin yield (RY) individuals is time-consuming, laborious, and expensive. The objective of this study was to identify high-RY slash pine trees with the method of resin flow rate (RFR) in a short timeframe in three plantations of southern China. The comparison of chemical profile between high- and low-yield individuals was also conducted. Moreover, the structural basis referred to resin secretion was studied by investigating the relationship between resin duct characteristics and RY. The phenotypic and genetic correlation coefficients between RY and RFR at all three sites were 0.44−0.85 and 0.58−0.71 respectively, which indicated that RFR measuring technology was reliable for tree breeders to select slash pine trees with high RY for breeding purpose. Resin component analysis revealed that the relative contents of β-pinene were higher in more productive trees; however, for α-pinene, the relative contents were significantly lower. Seasonal variation was low for most resin components and highly consistent across resin yielding classes and test sites. There were strong relations between RY and resin duct size and area at all three sites. High-yield individuals were always characterized by larger duct sizes and larger total areas when compared with low-yield trees. The RFR, certain resin components such as β-pinene, and most resin duct characteristics could be useful criteria for evaluating resin production in slash pine and could be applied to improve tapping management and breeding programs.

Microscopic anatomy and ultrastructure of the resin ducts of Ferula ferulaeoides (Steud.) Korov. in Xinjiang.

Ferula ferulaeoides (Steud.) Korov. is a perennial herb that belongs to Umbelliferae (Apiaceae). Its resin and roots have extensive commercial and medicinal value in the Xinjiang region. However, the resin-secreting resin ducts (RDs) of F. ferulaeoides have not been studied in detail. This study used optical and transmission electron microscopy to explore the anatomical features, including the distribution, size, and structure, of the RDs among different organs of F. ferulaeoides. The microstructure data revealed that the RDs consisted of a round lumen, a layer of secretory cells, and multiple layers of sheath cells. Notably, the RDs in stem were arranged alternatively in a multilayered ring with vascular bundles of three distinct sizes. The ultrastructural analysis revealed that organelles in the secretory cells potentially play important roles in resin secretion. Those data may be of great significance to understanding the anatomy of the RDs in Ferula L. and Umbelliferae.

Taxonomic novelties in Clusia (Clusiaceae) from Venezuela

Although a comprehensive taxonomic treatment of the genus Clusia in the Venezuelan Guayana was published 20 years ago, much taxonomic work remains to be done regarding the genus in the region, including description of new species. In this paper we describe and illustrate five new species of Clusia sect. Oedematopus (Clusia dickinsoniana, C. donramonii, C. peterstevensii, C. punctata and C. tetramera), which are characterized by their small flowers without resin or nectar secretion.

Floral resins of Philodendron adamantinum (Araceae): secretion, release and synchrony with pollinators

ABSTRACT Philodendron is the only genus of Araceae in which resin release occurs in the inflorescence. The resinous secretion adheres to the smooth body surface of the pollinating scarab beetles and allows attachment of pollen grains, making its transport possible. In order to understand the process of resin synthesis and release to the external environment, we used structural, ultrastructural and histochemical analyses at different stages of development of the inflorescences of Philodendron adamantinum. Two types of secretory canals were observed in the spathe: small caliber canals near the abaxial face, and larger caliber canals in the adaxial region. Only the latter canals release secretion into the external environment. The secretory epithelium in these canals is formed by a layer of cuneiform cells, and exhibits secretory activity throughout the development of the spathe. Resin exudation is a peculiar characteristic of these canals and appears to result from pressure exerted by the secretory epithelium and by structural modifications in the wall of cells adjacent to the epidermis, which allow the formation of a separation zone whereby the resin is released. The observed synchrony between anther dehiscence and resin exudation of P. adamantinum enhances the role of this secretion in the pollination process.

Biochemical response of Flemingia semialata (Roxb.) to sap sucking lac insect Kerria lacca kerr

Lac insect Kerria lacca (Kerr), an exclusive stem phloem feeder, produces a resinous secretion known as lac, over its body for protection which has several commercial applications. By sucking phloem sap from certain host plants, lac insect exerts stress. To elucidate its feeding effect on the host plant biochemical response, Flemingia semialata was infested with lac insect. From the pooled data over months and years it was observed that total sugar, soluble protein, free phenol, total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents increased in the leaves of lac insect infested host plant. A reverse trend was observed with leaf starch, and it decreased under lac insect infested condition. The study reveals that lac insect feeding significantly alters primary and secondary metabolism of host plants to ensure its survival as well that of its host plant.

Effect of four tapping methods on anatomical traits and resin yield in Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.)

External induction of resin secretion, based on the defence system of Pinus trees, has been performed by humans since Classical times through various methods. The socio-economic implication of this practice in Spain and the expansion of the Chinese market justify a new approach to tapping methodology and the effects of this activity on the tree. The resin yield of 561 Pinus pinaster trees in a stand in central Spain, tapped in 2012 using four different methods (mechanised or traditional tool, upwards or downwards), was analysed. An anatomical study was made of 13 trees (8 tapped and 5 controls) in another stand 13km away with similar climate and soil conditions, tapped in 2011 using the same four methods. From each tapped tree, eight cores were taken at different locations and varying distances from the tapping wound. In each core, an analysis was made of growth ring, earlywood and latewood width, and axial canal frequency, area, mean size and location from one year before tapping to two years after (2010–2013). The highest mean annual resin yield was found for traditional tool upward tapping, which also induced the highest increase in axial canal frequency and area. The lowest yield was found for mechanised tapping, which showed no differences between the upward and downward directions. The strongest induction of systemic induced responses in terms of resin canal frequency and area was detected one year after tapping for upward tapping. This suggests the involvement of signalling processes that spread mainly upwards, and the importance of adaptive processes as a defence to periodic insect attacks for this forest tree.