Resident Geese Research Articles

Year-round activity levels reveal diurnal foraging constraints in the annual cycle of migratory and non-migratory barnacle geese

Performing migratory journeys comes with energetic costs, which have to be compensated within the annual cycle. An assessment of how and when such compensation occurs is ideally done by comparing full annual cycles of migratory and non-migratory individuals of the same species, which is rarely achieved. We studied free-living migratory and resident barnacle geese belonging to the same flyway (metapopulation), and investigated when differences in foraging activity occur, and when foraging extends beyond available daylight, indicating a diurnal foraging constraint in these usually diurnal animals. We compared foraging activity of migratory (N = 94) and resident (N = 30) geese throughout the annual cycle using GPS-transmitters and 3D-accelerometers, and corroborated this with data on seasonal variation in body condition. Migratory geese were more active than residents during most of the year, amounting to a difference of over 370 h over an entire annual cycle. Activity differences were largest during the periods that comprised preparation for spring and autumn migration. Lengthening days during spring facilitated increased activity, which coincided with an increase in body condition. Both migratory and resident geese were active at night during winter, but migratory geese were also active at night before autumn migration, resulting in a period of night-time activity that was 6 weeks longer than in resident geese. Our results indicate that, at least in geese, seasonal migration requires longer daily activity not only during migration but throughout most of the annual cycle, with migrants being more frequently forced to extend foraging activity into the night.

Leapfrog migration and residents: New migratory habits in Swedish Greylag geese.

Knowledge about intraspecific and individual variation in bird migration behavior is important to predict spatiotemporal distribution, patterns of phenology, breeding success, and interactions with the surrounding environment (e.g., human livelihoods). Such variation is key to adaptive, evolutionary responses, i.e., how individuals respond spatiotemporally to the environment to maximize fitness. In this study we used GPS location data from one to three full annual cycles from 76 Greylag geese (Anser anser) to test the hypothesis that geese originating at five latitudinally separated capture sites in Sweden have different migration strategies. We also assessed individual consistency in movement strategy over consecutive annual cycles. We used the scale‐independent net squared displacement modeling framework to quantify variables of autumn and spring migration for geese from each capture site: distance, timing, and duration. Our results demonstrate a positive correlation between migration distance and latitudinal origin. Geese from the northernmost site on average migrated farther south and about 15 times as far as the short‐moving or resident geese from the two southernmost sites. Movement strategies of individual geese varied considerably both within and among capture sites. Individual consistency in movement strategy from one annual cycle to the consecutive was high in geese from the northern sites moving the farthest, whereas the resident or short‐moving geese from the southernmost sites generally showed lower or no individual consistency. These changes have come about during a time span so short (i.e., ca. 35 years or 8–10 generations) that it can unlikely be explained by classical Darwinian between‐generation adaptation. Consequently, and given that young geese follow their parents during their first migration, we presume an important role of within‐family, inter‐generation change as a driver behind the large‐scale changed migration habits in Swedish Greylag geese.

Relationships Between Migration and Microbiome Composition and Diversity in Urban Canada Geese

Microbiome analysis presents an opportunity to understand how urban environments affect avian physiology. For example, habitat use can affect microbiome diversity and composition, and hosts with more diverse gut microbiota are thought to be more resistant to pathogens and have increased fitness. However, the microbiome is an understudied aspect of avian ecology, particularly in the context of migration and urbanization in wild birds. For this study, we hypothesized that, within urban birds, migrants would exhibit greater microbial diversity and inter-individual variation in microbiome composition than residents because they are exposed to more diverse habitats. We focused on Canada geese (Branta canadensis), one of many migratory species that exhibit increasingly more year-round residency in cities. We used 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to quantify microbiome taxonomic composition in fecal samples from 32 GPS-tracked Canada geese, 22 of which were year-round residents of the Chicago area and 10 of which were migrants. Similar to recent studies on wild species feeding near human habitation, urban resident geese had higher gut microbial diversity than migrants. They also had increased inter-individual variation in microbiome composition and, on average, lower relative abundances of bacteria in the phylum Firmicutes, and the genera Terrisporobacter, Turicibacter, and Cellulosilyticum, which all have metabolic functions that may aid in goose digestion. Therefore, the gut microbiome of resident geese may provide fewer potential health benefits. These patterns may be a result of anthropogenic influences on aspects of resident goose ecology, such as diet, as well the influence of migration on migrant goose ecology and biology. Overall, our results suggest that reduced migration for urban-adapted wildlife species may have important consequences for physiology and health.

Long‐Term Survival and Harvest of Resident Canada Geese in Virginia

ABSTRACTResident populations of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) are of particular management interest throughout the eastern United States given increased human‐wildlife conflicts due to regional increases in the Atlantic Flyway Resident Population. Within Virginia, USA, growth rates of resident goose populations have been reduced through extended harvest seasons and increased bag limits. Our objective was to investigate spatiotemporal patterns in survival rates and harvest rates of resident geese in Virginia over the past 25 years. We estimated annual survival, recovery, and harvest rates using mark‐recapture data from 1990–2015 for individuals that were banded as resident birds during summer throughout the state. We tested for differences in annual survival probability and harvest rates of resident geese banded and recovered in 3 distinct goose hunt zones: the Atlantic, Southern James Bay, and Western hunt zones, each of which had different hunting regulations. We also tested for differences in survival and harvest rates between individuals banded in rural or urban sampling locations, and between age classes (i.e., after hatch‐year or hatch‐year). In general, survival rates of resident geese over the past 25 years in Virginia are declining. Differences in survival among the 3 goose hunt zones also suggests that current harvest management strategies have reduced survival rates of resident geese. Upon closer examination, we found differences in survival among zones, with resident geese in the Atlantic and Southern James Bay hunt zones showing more negative declines compared to resident geese in the Western zone. Resident geese banded in rural areas had higher survival than urban‐banded geese. We also investigated the effects of sampling effort on survival estimates and found no difference in survival estimates among groups when using 75%, 50%, 25%, or 5% of the data randomly sampled from the full data set, suggesting that banding efforts of resident geese could be reduced and continue to inform adaptive management strategies for these populations throughout Virginia. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.

Conservation genetics of a resident population of Greylag Goose (Anser anser) at the southernmost limit of the species\u2019 distribution in Europe

BackgroundConservation of small and isolated populations can be challenging since they are prone to loss of genetic diversity due to random genetic drift and inbreeding. Therefore, information from the assessment of genetic diversity and structure are needed for conservation programs to determine the appropriate management strategy for the populations. We investigated the levels of genetic variability in a resident Greylag Goose (Anser anser) population, the southernmost breeding population of the species in Europe and the sole viable population of any goose species in Greece.MethodsA fragment of mtDNA Control Region and a panel of 11 microsatellite markers were used to search for any signs of genetic impoverishment and population substructure and to reveal the underlying processes through the identification of possible past demographic events.ResultsThe population was found to be monomorphic in the amplified fragment of the mitochondrial Control Region, with all individuals sharing a single private haplotype. Analyses showed a lack of any population substructure indicating a panmictic population. Although the population seems to have experienced a strong and recent genetic bottleneck and exhibits a small effective population size, we did not find evidence of either extremely low levels of genetic diversity or inbreeding depression.ConclusionsThe recent demographic decline we detected and the combined influence of residency and anthropogenic factors have probably shaped the current genetic status. Our study population does not need emergency conservation actions but should be regarded as a discrete management unit. Future management strategies should focus on population and genetic monitoring and preventing further abundance declines that would increase the risk of genetic impoverishment.

Rearing conditions of greylag geese affect habitat choice throughout life

Anthropogenic changes to the landscape such as fertilization and mowing schemes have been correlated with goslings obtaining a higher weight gain during the first weeks of their life, which in turn increases breeding success and survival at the adult stage. As goose numbers rise, conflicts with farmers become stronger as the birds use agricultural sites for foraging. In this study, habitat choice for individually marked greylag geese from four different rearing conditions, categorized by their temporal application of fertilizer, was documented over a seventeen‐year period. Weekly observations took place on a resident population of wild greylag geese within the Ooijpolder, the Netherlands. The region comprises of areas dedicated to nature restoration as well as agricultural use. In essence, we infer the habitat choice of greylag geese from the frequency of sightings of individually marked geese in different habitat patches, and model habitat choice as a function of rearing conditions, age, and seasonality. Despite a general preference for agricultural grassland, about 40% of the habitat choice was determined by the rearing condition of geese. Interestingly, geese reared in restored meadows, a less favorable rearing habitat, exhibited strong habitat fidelity and preferred to forage in meadows in the spring. Habitat choice was furthermore influenced by age of adult geese and seasonal changes in plant availability. We discuss management implications of our results on habitat choice in an agricultural landscape for increasing resident goose populations. An efficient management measure would be the limitation of goose access to improved grassland during rearing period in the spring.

Canada goose nest survival at rural wetlands in north-central Iowa

The last comprehensive nest survival study of the breeding giant Canada goose (Branta canadensis maxima) population in Iowa, USA, was conducted >30 years ago during a period of population recovery, during which available nesting habitat consisted primarily of artificial nest structures. Currently, Iowa's resident goose population is stable and nests in a variety of habitats. We analyzed the effects of available habitat on nest survival and how nest survival rates compared with those of the expanding goose population studied previously to better understand how to maintain a sustainable Canada goose population in Iowa. We documented Canada goose nest survival at rural wetland sites in north-central Iowa. We monitored 121 nests in 2013 and 149 nests in 2014 at 5 Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) with various nesting habitats, including islands, muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) houses, and elevated nest structures. We estimated daily nest-survival rate using the nest survival model in Program MARK. Survival was influenced by year, site, stage, presence of a camera, nest age, and an interaction between nest age and stage. Nest success rates for the 28-day incubation period by site and year combination ranged from 0.10 to 0.84. Nest survival was greatest at sites with nest structures (β = 17.34). Nest survival was negatively affected by lowered water levels at Rice Lake WMA (2013 β = −0.77, nest age β = −0.07). Timing of water-level drawdowns for shallow lake restorations may influence nest survival rates. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Evaluation of resident Canada goose movements to reduce the risk of goose‐aircraft collisions at suburban airports

ABSTRACTResident (non‐migratory) Canada goose (Branta canadensis) populations in suburban environments pose risks to human health and safety. Specifically, the relatively large size and gregarious behavior of geese combined with an overlap in aircraft flight space pose substantial risk of property damage and human fatalities from goose‐aircraft collisions. We estimated home range and core use areas of resident Canada geese and evaluated goose movements to better define the risk of goose‐aircraft collisions around Piedmont Triad International Airport in Greensboro, North Carolina, USA. We placed satellite transmitters on 16 of 763 neck‐ and leg‐banded geese to identify and track individuals over an 18‐month study period. The frequency of satellite‐tagged goose movements peaked daily within the first 2 hours after sunrise (28.1%) and again near sunset (27.2%). All in‐flight goose movements occurred ≤64 m above ground level. Geese flying at these altitudes posed a risk to aircraft in the take‐off and landing phases of flight. For all in‐flight movements, the number of movements per day was 0.13 during the molt (1 Jun–15 Jul), 0.42 during early post‐molt 2008 (16 Jul–31 Oct), 0.36 during late post‐molt (1 Nov–31 Jan), 0.58 during breeding/nesting (1 Feb–31 May), and 0.58 during the early post‐molt 2009. Satellite‐tagged geese traveled a mean distance ranging from 2.0 km (SE = 0.3) to 4.9 km (SE = 0.4) per day, depending on sex and season, which supports the need for intensive goose management within a minimum distance of 8 km from airports. Mean fixed 95% kernel home range and 50% core use area were 991.8 ha (SE = 241.1) and 120.4 ha (SE = 24.6), respectively. Additionally, we monitored site recolonization of nuisance geese after the controlled removal of 60 resident geese from 1 site, which eliminated 24.2% of those initially banded at the site in 2008, but other geese began to recolonize the site within 27 days. Rapid recolonization of the removal site suggests that lethal removal should be conducted at all molt locations within a minimum distance of 8 km of suburban airports and any additional removal or management resources should be applied to greater distances to prevent recolonization of these sites by geese in close proximity to the removal site. Published 2015. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Demographics of Canada geese introduced in western Colorado

Breeding populations of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) were established throughout western Colorado during 1955–1988 using geese transplanted from other areas. Subsequently, there has been no assessment of demographics and winter distributions on these local populations. Managers need this information to effectively manage breeding populations of Canada geese to provide publics with recreational opportunities and to reduce human-goose conflicts in western Colorado, particularly for segments of internationally recognized populations with cooperative management plans. We conducted a band recovery study during 2000–2006 to assess demographics and winter distributions of Canada geese breeding in 7 subareas of western Colorado. Cooperators banded 19,189 geese during June and early July. We recaptured 5,185 of these geese 1–4 times during banding operations in subsequent years and most (97%) were recaptured in the subarea of banding the year after banding. We obtained 2,921 useable band recoveries through May 2007, and most (98%) recoveries were a result of either being shot or found dead during hunting season. Direct band recoveries (<1 year after banding) were recovered almost exclusively in Colorado (87%) and New Mexico (12%), and indirect band recoveries (≥1 year after banding) showed similar distribution (73% in Colorado and 16% in New Mexico). Geese in subareas of western Colorado had different recovery distributions, and contributed to 4 wintering concentrations of Canada geese in western and central Colorado and New Mexico. Annual survival probability for adult geese was 0.864 ± 0.012. The survival probability for juvenile geese was 0.503 ± 0.026, but we did find evidence that this estimate may be biased low. We used the band reporting probability of 0.525 ± 0.071 to derive harvest rates from band recovery rates. Harvest rate was 0.128 ± 0.018 for adult geese and 0.169 ± 0.024 for juvenile geese. Survival probability was lesser and harvest rate greater for the 3 western subareas (Western Plateau) compared to the 4 eastern subareas (Rocky Mountains). Our results suggest that Canada geese that breed and molt in western Colorado have high survival probability and are largely non-migratory with some movement in winter from high to low elevation areas primarily in Colorado. To effectively manage the growing resident goose population in western Colorado, managers may need to increase harvest rates for these geese. © 2014 The Wildlife Society.

Effects of Mowing on Anthraquinone for Deterrence of Canada Geese

ABSTRACT Anthraquinone (AQ)‐based repellents have been shown to reduce Canada goose (Branta canadensis) use of turfgrass; however, impacts of frequent mowing on efficacy of AQ have not been studied. Our objective was to determine efficacy and longevity of a rain‐fast AQ‐based avian repellent, FlightControl® PLUS (FCP), as a deterrent of free‐ranging resident Canada geese under 2 mowing frequencies. We conducted the study at 8 sites in the Triangle region (Raleigh, Durham, and Chapel Hill) of North Carolina, USA. We arranged our experiment in a randomized complete block design, with each of 8 sites containing 4 0.1‐ha treatment combinations: 1) treated with FCP and mowed every 4 days (T4), 2) treated with FCP and mowed every 8 days (T8), 3) untreated and mowed every 4 days, and 4) untreated and mowed every 8 days. We conducted 4 37‐day field sessions (Jun‐Jul 2007, Sep‐Oct 2007, Jun‐Jul 2008, and Sep‐Oct 2008), representing the summer molting phase and the full‐plumage phase. Resident goose use (measured by daily no. of droppings) was 41–70% lower on treated plots than on untreated plots, but use was similar between T4 and T8. Average FCP coverage on grass blades decreased in coverage from approximately 95% to 10% over the 30‐day posttreatment phase. Results indicate that resident Canada goose use of FCP‐treated turfgrass areas was lower than untreated areas even when chemical coverage on grass was 10%. Further, mowing frequency did not have a clear impact on the efficacy of FCP as a Canada goose repellent.

Can Hunting of Translocated Nuisance Canada Geese Reduce Local Conflicts?

Abstract Resident Canada geese (Branta canadensis) nest or reside in the temperate latitudes of North America. In past years, translocation—the capture and subsequent release of geese at distant locations—has been used to establish resident goose populations and to reduce nuisance problems. However, with new special hunting seasons designed to target resident Canada geese, we can now evaluate translocation as a management tool when hunting is allowed at release sites. We selected 2 study sites, representative of urban and suburban locations with nuisance resident geese, in central and western New York, USA. In June 2003, we translocated 80 neck-banded adult geese, 14 radiomarked adult females, and 83 juveniles 150 km east and southwest from urban and suburban problem sites in western New York to state-owned Wildlife Management Areas. At these same capture sites, we used 151 neck-banded adult geese, 12 radiomarked females, and 100 juveniles as controls to compare dispersal movements and harvest vulnerabili...

Fall Flock Behavior and Harvest of Canada Geese

We studied fall flock behavior and harvest of locally breeding Canada geese (Branta canadensis) and those that use the area as a migration stopover at the Talcot Lake Wildlife Management Area (TLWMA) in southwest Minnesota in 1980-81. We used neckbands and radio transmitters to measure movements and survival of geese. We conducted aerial and ground surveys to estimate the size of goose populations. The 800-ha TLWMA refuge provided hunting season sanctuary for geese breeding in a 1,500-km2 area surrounding the refuge. Fidelity of local geese to feeding and roosting sites was strong throughout the fall. Prehuntingseason flight patterns to feeding sites off the refuge continued despite heavy hunting pressure. Marked families from a given brood-rearing site fed and roosted together at rates greater than would have been expected by chance. This subflock behavior, combined with consistent flight patterns, resulted in differential mortality among brood-rearing groups. In contrast, migrants remained at TLWMA briefly, fed independently from local geese when off the refuge, and were harvested at a lower rate (P < 0.05) than local geese. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(4):679-688 The giant Canada goose (B. c. maxima) has been restored over much of its former midwestern range (Nelson 1963, Brakhage 1965, Dill and Lee 1970, Cooper 1978). This race has steadily increased to an estimated 108,000 birds in the Mississippi Flyway in 1981 (U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. and Can. Wildl. Serv. 1982). Although less numerous than subarctic and arctic goose populations (Bellrose 1976), resident populations of giant Canada geese provide recreation where geese were once rare or absent (Hine and Schoenfeld 1968). Management programs for local geese have included establishing additional populations, improving breeding habitat, and establishing refuges. Refuges have also contributed to an increase in subarctic and arctic nesting Canada geese stopping in the upper midwest (Vaught and Kirsch 1966, Reeves et al. 1968). Concurrent use of refuges by migrant geese and locally breeding geese is common. Goose concentrations on refuges have resulted in high hunter densities, firing lines, and crop depredations. These issues, and a goal to apportion the harvest of geese equitably in the Mississippi Flyway, have led to a search for methods to distribute migrant geese (Reeves et al. 1968). Sherwood (1968) identified hunting as an important limiting factor for restored populations; therefore, techniques are needed for managing the harvest of migrant and locally breeding geese concurrently using a refuge. An understanding of the behavior of migrant and resident geese during fall is necessary to attain this objective. Migratory and wintering subpopulations or subflocks of Canada geese have been described by Kennedy and Arthur (1974), Koerner et al. (1974), and Raveling (1969, 1978, 1979). Zicus (1981a) documented subflock behavior on the breeding grounds in summer and fall. Zicus (1981a) suggested that resident geese rearing young at specific sites associated with each other and differed from other subflocks in their use of a refuge for feeding and roosting; he speculated that subflocks may differ in their vulnerability to hunting. Our study examined behavior of resident and migrant Canada geese using a refuge concurrently during fall in southwest Minnesota. We studied chronological changes in size and composition of migrant and local flocks, use of feeding sites, family associations and mortality rates among local geese, composition of the Canada goose harvest, and factors affecting vulnerability of these geese to hunting. We thank J. R. Kitts and F. B. Martin, University of Minnesota, for reviewing the manuscript and for assisting with statistical procedures, respectively. R. J. Peterson, J. G. Beech, D. G. Opdahl, L. M. Koster, E. L. Larson, and other personnel of the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (MDNR) helped with banding, observations, and bag checks. Additional banding assistance was provided by S. J. 1 Present address: Section of Wildlife, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 231 E. Second Street, Redwood Falls, MN 56283.

Phosmet residues in an orchard and adjacent recreational area.

Two cover sprays of phosmet were applied to an orchard adjoining a camping area and a bird sanctuary with a resident goose population. Insecticide residues were monitored on orchard leaves, orchard ground cover, ground cover in the camp-site and along the adjacent lakeshore. Despite attempts to minimize drift, significant spray residues were found outside the target area. Residues on ground cover and leaves were reduced by sprinkler irrigation subsequent to spray application.

The Mortality, Behavior, and Homing of Transplanted Juvenile Canada Geese

During the summers of 1967 and 1968, 273 flightless 7-and 8-week-old Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) were transplanted about 100 miles from their natal lakes near Brooks, to release sites northeast of Hanna, Alberta. All transplants received leg bands and colored neck collars for field identification. A preflight mortality of 4 percent was calculated. Postflight locations, identity, and behavior of transplants were recorded. Feeding was the major daily preflight activity of transplants, and occurred most intensively at sunrise and sunset. Resident geese were dominant over transplants. Non-breeding resident geese were more tolerant of transplants than were breeding pairs. The postflight movements of transplants were localized and as a unit under the leadership of resident birds. Transplants on release sites unoccupied by resident geese dispersed from these lakes in small groups immediately after attaining flight. From 68 birds of each sex (136) transplanted in 1967, 13 homing female yearlings were recorded in the spring of 1968. In the spring of l969, 22 females and 22 males vere observed cyn the area from a potential of 64 males and 73 females transplanted the previous summer. Homing of yearling females was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than for yearling males. Eighty-five and 86 percent of the initial sightings of yearling females in 1968 and 1969 respectively, were on or within 1 mile of their release sites. In 1969, 32 percent of the initial sightings of yearling males were on or within 1 mile of their release sites. Eighty percent of the homing yearlirlg females formed pair relationships during 1968 and 196g, with 68 percent occurring on the study area. Females appeared attracted to their release sites whether they were paired or unpaired. Sixty-eight percent of the yearling males showed pairing tendencies in 1969. Twenty-seven percent of these pair associations occurred on the study area. Of the yearling males returning, only those forming pair associations remained on the study area for 30 days or longer. Apparently the males were more attracted to the females in the pair associations than to their release sites. The pair bonds of some of the yearling females appeared to become unstable just prior to the summer molt migration C'o 2-year-old males were known to home to the area. Five 2-year-old females homed to and paired on their release sites. One 2-year-old female nested and successfully raised a brood of 5 goslings. The natural dispersion of large Canada geese throughout their original breeding range, as delineated by Hanson ( 1965 ), can best be described as slow, even under optimum habitat conditions. This lack of pioneering may be due to certain physiological and behavioral characteristics. Mayr ( 1942 ) stated that strong intrafamily bonds played an important role in the subspeciation of Canada geese over areas where geographic barriers were lacking. With reference to geese in general, Johns1 A joint contribution from the Alberta Fish and Wildlife Division and the Zoology and Entomology Department, Montana State University, Bozeman. Published as Journal Series 156. Montana Agricultural Experiment Station. 2 Present Address: 411 28 Avenue, N. W., Calgary 43, Alberta, Canada. gard ( 1965 ) attributed slow increase in numbers and lack of gene mixing to delayed maturation and permanency of pair bonds respectively. Sherwood ( 1967) confirmed the formation of both pair and intrafamily bonds. He also found a lack of dispersion from the natal area, particularly by females. Because Canada geese are important for their aesthetic and sporting qualities, biologists have attempted to artificially establish lo-cal breeding populations by using captive flocks or by transporting and releasing juveniles. These attempts have produced variable results. Pirnie ( 1938 ) concluded that the restocking of Canada geese by captive flocks was successful in southern Michigan. Williams and Kalm-

Biology and Behavior of Tub-Nesting Canada Geese

A 3-year study (1961-64) of a sedentary flock of Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) is reported. A detailed study of full-winged birds was possible because each was individually colormarked and of known age and sex. Most pairs nested in elevated wash tubs which provided protection from predators during the laying period. Courtship, density of nests, and territorial requirements are discussed. Ten percent of yearling males nested. Females became productive in their second year with one-third of them nesting. Ninety percent or more of males 2 years and older and females 3 years and older paired. Polygamy was not uncommon. Nesting territories were selected by the females and defended primarily by the males. Females had an affinity for their nest sites in subsequent years. The rate of laying was one egg each 11/2 days. There was a direct relationship between age of females and initiation of laying; older females nested first. Eggs of maxima were similar to those of other subspecies. Egg size was related to age of females; 5-year-old birds laid the largest eggs. Down appeared most often with the fourth egg. Clutches of successful tub-nesting females averaged 5.5 eggs while successful ground-nesting females averaged 4.6 eggs. Older females laid larger clutches and hatched a larger percentage of their eggs than did younger females. The duration of breeding season was influenced primarily by renesting. Females incubated 28 days; males anticipated hatching. Females incubated dead eggs 1.5 times normal length. Goslings were held in the tubs about 24 hours after hatching and became imprinted to their parents. Broods were called from the tubs by their parents, and the nesting territory was abandoned as the new family swam away. Loss of production in tub nests was primarily because of desertions and in ground nests because of destructions. Renests were of two types: continuation nests, which were located an average of 96 yards from destroyed nests, and true renests, which were located an average of 243 yards away. Clutch sizes were the same in original and renests but were smaller in continuation nests. The average renesting interval was 13 days and was directly related to the number of eggs in the original nest. Seventy-three percent of incubated eggs hatched, 5 percent were infertile, and 22 percent died during incubation. Broods retained their identity for about 7 days, then gradually formed creches of increasing size. Creches were accompanied by both productive pairs and nonbreeding females. Gosling mortality averaged 32 percent. Resident geese were almost as wild as migrants during the fall but were quite tame during the postmolting period. Canada geese are prized game birds of considerable trophy value. They are widely distributed over the North American continent and hunted in some way almost 10 months of each year. Much has been learned about goose management on the wintering grounds, but because of the remoteness of most of their nesting area and the bird's wide dispersal within that area, far less is known about their breeding biology and nesting behavior. Previous behavior studies have dealt with pinioned or confined birds, and most nesting studies have been concerned with gross aspects of population productivity. The purpose of this study was to learn facts about the nesting biology and behavior of full-winged, unconfined, nonmigratory Canada geese. The objective was to determine whether these birds were suitable for restocking purposes and productive enough to warrant annual harvests. The study was conducted over a 3-year period from 1961 to 1964 at the Trimble Wildlife Area, Trimble, Clinton County, Missouri. The area, developed in 1950-51 with Federal Aid funds, is located in northwest Missouri between Kansas City and St. Joseph. Its 1,200 acres include a reservoir of 160 acres and 10 adjacent marshes totaling 175 acres. About 680 acres of upland are available for cultivation. The primary objective of management is to provide suitable habitat for ducks, nesting geese, and fish, with the ultimate goal of providing public recreation. In January, 1952, 24 pinioned Canada geese, now identified as B. c. maxima, were 'A Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Project, Surveys and Investigations Projects, Missouri 13-4.