Request Zone Research Articles

LoCaL: Link‐optimized cone‐assisted location routing in flying ad hoc networks

SummaryRecently, flying ad hoc networks (FANETs) has become a core research area in wireless networks that involves multiple unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). It is widely used in modern warfare for surveillance, monitoring and reconnaissance. The routing in FANETs poses a more significant challenge due to limited energy and frequent link disconnection between the UAVs. Consequently, an effective route is always required to ensure data transmission between UAVs. Therefore, this research proposes a link‐optimized cone‐assisted location (LoCaL) routing protocol for FANETs. The main goal of the proposed LoCaL is to enhance the link duration between the UAVs in which a source selects a forwarding UAV from a given set of neighbours by estimating the residual energy, link duration time and safety degree parameters. Proposed LoCaL provides better stability and less frequent route breaks between source and destination. Further, the mathematical formulation of the proposed approach is presented through the utility function to enhance the route stability by selecting all those relay UAVs in the cone‐shaped request zone, which reduces the routing overhead in discovering the route. Finally, the performance of the LoCaL has been presented through key indicators such as energy consumption, routing overhead, message delivery ratio, network lifetime and delay compared to the existing approaches.

Secure Optimized Request Zone Location-Aided Routing

Secure data transmission is one of the biggest challenges for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) due to its dynamic and infrastructure-less characteristics. Such security services become a demand to provide safe and secure conversation between automobiles. In this paper, two optimized secure routing protocol for VANETs were proposed: 1) Secure Tilted-Rectangular-Shaped Request Zone Location-Aided Routing protocol (STRS-RZLAR); 2) Secure Cone-Shaped Request Zone LAR (SCS-RZLAR). Each proposed secure protocol integrates a security unit with an optimized shape request zone. The security unit in both protocols is a multi-layer unit that adopts two security agreement protocols: 1) modified Diffie-Hellman key agreement protocol; 2) short authentication string (SAS)-based key agreement protocol. The overall communication scheme is performed using Wi-Fi Direct out-of-band channels. The proposed secure protocols provide a reliable and secure data transmission between automobiles in a VANET and thus making it robust against man-in-the-middle attack (MITMA). Extensive simulations using three main network parameters: vehicular node density, number of malicious nodes and vehicle speed show that the proposed secure routing protocols provide superior performance regarding data delivery and normalized routing load (NRL) with a trade-off in average end to end packet delay. From the other side, Simulation results show that SCS-RZLAR protocol outperforms the STRS-RZLAR protocol regarding NRL and average end to end packet delay, while STRS-RZLAR protocol outperforms the SCS-RZLAR protocol regarding data delivery.

Two-level data packet security mechanism – secure location-aided routing (SLAR)

Secure data transmission is one of the most difficult challenges of Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANET), it is a group of wireless mobile nodes that creates a temporary network without the help of a centralized system, infrastructure, or access point. Location-Aided Routing (LAR) protocols limit the ad hoc network's search for a new route to a limited "request zone." For safe message transmission in the current Location Aided Routing protocol, the Secure Location Aided Routing algorithm (SLAR) is proposed in this paper. The LAR is a geographic routing protocol that establishes the route discovery region between the source and distance before forwarding the route request packets. SLAR is an extension of LAR where the performance of LAR is compared in the presence and absence of malicious nodes, and the security of LAR is improved by putting cryptographic features in it. SLAR has significantly improved throughput, end-to-end delay, and packet delivery ratio compared to LAR.

Adaptive Security-aware Cone-shaped Request-zone Location-aided Routing Protocol Using Agent-Based Methodology for VANETs

In this paper, we propose an agent-based adaptive security-aware enhancement algorithm with congestion control mechanism for limited resources VANETs using intelligent transportation systems. The proposed security algorithm is to be installed at a central server that receives information about the vehicle resources from distributed intelligent road side units (RSUs) in a virtual segmented road via existing wireless cellular networks (4G). The security algorithm adaptively makes a decision about the best integrity security service level a source node can adopt while encrypting its data flows according to a resource estimation congestion control mechanism. The information about the security level decision will be transferred from the central server to the RSU via wireless cellular networks (4G). From the other side, the RSU transfers it to the source vehicle node via Wi-Fi direct technology. In finding the secure route to destination, we adopt our previously proposed secure cone-shaped request-zone LAR (SCSLAR). In order to notify the destination node with the security level that was adopted by the source, we override the 1st 3 bits of the 1st payload byte of the IEEE 802.11 wireless frame format to represent the associated integrity security level. Using three main network parameters: node density, vehicular speed, and number of malicious nodes, extensive simulation results based on QualNet simulator that is based on the GloMoSim used by Scalable Network Technologies (SNT) show that the proposed secure cone-shaped request zone LAR with resource estimation methodology (SCSLAR-RE) outperforms the SCSLAR regarding data delivery and in protecting the VANET from being congested by heavy traffic load through minimizing both the buffer consumption and the average packets delays at the destination side, while providing the best integrity security level to the data streams that make them robust against the alteration threat.

Minimize the routing overhead through 3D cone shaped location-aided routing protocol for FANETs

Recently, designing an effective routing protocol is challenging for flying ad-hoc networks (FANETs) due to the versatile nature of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Position-based routing schemes are seen to be a remarkable preference for routing in FANETs due to the fact that the geographical information of UAVs is readily available. In this paper, we are interested in the modification of the location-aided routing (LAR) that we call 3D cone shaped location-aided routing (3DC-LAR) a position-based routing (PBR) protocol. In the existing LAR scheme, a route discovery process done through the concept of request zone, in which only nodes presents in the request zone will forward the route request for transmitting the data. The proposed 3DC-LAR scheme modified the definition of request zone using 3D cone shape by intermediate UAVs in FANETs environment. The simulation results reveal that the proposed 3DC-LAR scheme has contributed to lead to an improvement in the terms of routing overhead.

Optimised Tail-based Routing for VANETs using Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimisation with Angle Searching

Routing protocols for vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) are highly important, as they are essential for operating the concept of intelligent transportation system and several other applications. VANET Routing entails awareness about the nature of the road and various other parameters that affect the performance of the protocol. Optimising the VANET routing guarantees optimal metrics, such as low E2E delay, high packet delivery ratio (PDR) and low overhead. Since its performance is of multi-objective nature, it needs multi-objective optimisation as well. Most researchers have focused on a single objective or weighted average for multi-objective optimisation. Only a few of the studies have tackled the actual multi-objective optimisation of VANET routing. In this article, we propose a novel reactive routing protocol named tail-based routing, based on the concept of location-aided routing (LAR). We first re-defined the request zone to reduce the lateral width with respect to the lateral distance between the source and destination and named it tail. Next, we incorporated angle searching with crowding distance inside the multi-objective optimisation MO-PSO and called it MO-PSO-angle. Then, we conducted optimisation of tail-based routing using MO-PSO-angle and compared it with optimised LAR, which exhibited the superiority of the latter. The best improvement was at the optimisation point with a 96% improvement of PDR and a 313% improvement in E2E delay.

Secure Tilted-Rectangular-Shaped Request Zone Location-Aided Routing Protocol (STRS-RZLAR) for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks

Securing data communication in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) becomes a demand to provide safe and secure warning messages to drivers. In this paper, a secure routing protocol for VANETs was proposed. The protocol integrates a security unit that adopts a modified Diffie-Hellman key agreement protocol with an optimized location-aided routing protocol (LAR) that adopts a tilted rectangular shaped (TRS) request zone. The proposed Secure Tilted-Rectangular-Shaped Request Zone Location-Aided Routing Protocol (STRS-RZLAR) provides a secure communication between vehicles in VANETs and thus protects the overall communication scheme from man-in-the-middle attack (MITMA). By conducting extensive simulation results using two main network parameters: vehicular node density and the number of the malicious nodes, the proposed routing protocol outperforms the insecure TRS-LAR and the standard LAR in terms of secure data delivery.

Analytical Analysis of Improved Directional Location Added Routing Protocol for VANETS

Vehicular ad-hoc network (VANET) is a technology used to create a wireless ad-hoc network on demand basis using mobile vehicles. In VANET, mobile vehicles behave like a transmitter and they participate during data transmission on the network. In VANET, the nodes are highly movable in any direction. Due to this, links may be broken and the data delivery may fail. It may be recovered when other alternative links can be reestablished immediately. Thus, the network performance and reliability of the VANET depend upon the selection of next forwarder (N F ) node in forward area (F A ) of request zone. In this paper, we propose an Improved Directional LAR routing protocol that finds the best next-hop forwarder node in forward area and thus reduces unnecessary transmissions. Two algorithms have been proposed as one to select best next-hop forwarder node and other to forward data packets in the network. We have mathematically analyzed the nodes distribution in forward area direction. Furthermore, we have also evaluated the selection of next forwarder node, its expected distance, average numbers of hops and expected distance between source and destination nodes. The performance analysis has been done with existing D-LAR and LAR routing protocols.

A Cross-Layer Based Location-Aware Forwarding Using Distributed TDMA MAC for Ad-Hoc Cognitive Radio Networks

Cognitive Radio has been the key technology for dynamic spectrum access in wireless networks. Cognitive Radio seems to be a promising solution to the radio spectrum overcrowding problem as well. Cognitive Radio Network allows opportunistic usage of the spectrum holes by enabling the coexistence of licensed (primary) users and unlicensed (secondary) users. The existing wireless legacy network protocols limit the productive utilization of spectrum holes by the secondary users. The contribution of this paper is a cross-layer based location-aware forwarding protocol, using a distributed TDMA MAC, for ad-hoc Cognitive Radio Networks. The distributed TDMA based MAC protocol constructs TDMA schedules by exchanging three rounds of control messages with collision avoidance among secondary users as a fundamental goal. Exchange of control messages takes place over a common control channel in a distributed fashion. The MAC protocol also uses the service of network layer, which classifies the available channels and selects the best ranked channel and passes this information to the MAC sub-layer for effective communication. The proposed location-aware forwarding protocol constructs request zone for making decisions regarding data packet forwarding with highest packet delivery ratio, by confining the flooding of packets, as a key objective. Simulation results show the efficacy of the proposed cross-layer scheme.

Effective fuzzy-based location-aware routing with adjusting transmission range in MANET

Mobile ad-hoc network is a collection of mobile nodes. Mobility of the nodes leads to dynamic changes in network topology that may complicate the routing functions. Earlier a variety of topology and position-based routing protocols have been proposed for routing process in MANET. The results reveal that the position-based routing protocols are the better choice for routing functions in comparison with topology-based routing protocols. Therefore, our study is motivated to work for position-based routing so it enhances the performance of network. The proposed protocol aims to reduce the possibility of collisions, delay and decrease the overall communication overhead in network. Hence our scheme first, defines a small triangular shaped requested zone broadcast region which is dynamic in nature. Secondly, fuzzy-based forwarding scheme is proposed which combines both distance and directionbased strategies to determine the next forwarding node to achieve better performance with regard to energy consumption, routing overhead and end-to-end delay. The proposed scheme also focuses on the hole problem in the request zone and proposes a self-adjustable transmission range-based method to overcome the problem. The simulation results show that the proposed scheme outperforms than LAR1 and LARDAR schemes.

Analysis of Enhanced Switching Agent for Zigbee Wireless Sensor Network using LAR

A mobile ad hoc network consists of wireless hosts that may move often. Movement of hosts results in a change in routes, requiring some mechanism for determining new routes. Several routing protocols have already been proposed for ad hoc networks. This paper suggests an approach to utilize location information (for instance, obtained using the global positioning system) to improve performance of routing protocols for ad hoc networks. By using location information, the proposed Location-Aided Routing (LAR) protocols limit the search for a new route to a smaller “request zone” of the ad hoc network. This results in a significant reduction in the number of routing messages. We present two algorithms to determine the request zone, and also suggest potential optimizations to our algorithms.

Analytical Evaluation of Directional-Location Aided Routing Protocol for VANETs

Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANETs) are now considered as a way to realize active safety, by providing the position information of each other or the possible danger warning by wireless vehicular communications. Multi-hop data delivery in VANETs is a challenging task, since it encounters rapid changes in network topology and frequent fragmentation in the network. Because of these characteristics, routing algorithms based on greedy forwarding are known to be very suitable for VANETs. The design and implementation of efficient and scalable routing protocols for VANETs is a challenging task due to high dynamics and mobility constraints. In this paper, we have worked on a routing protocol over VANETs to efficiently broadcast the information for the sake of active safety applications, such as the positions and the directions of the vehicles. Therefore, we have explained a position-based routing protocol called directional-location aided routing (D-LAR) with (1) location-aided routing utilizes location information using GPS to limit the area for discovering a new route to a smaller request zone and (2) directional routing having direction closest to the line drawn between source and destination. D-LAR protocol is a greedy based approach to forward packet to the node present in request zone part of sender's transmission range as a most suitable next-hop node. Further, we have justified the feasibility of D-LAR routing protocol for VANETs. Through analytical analysis we have also given the relationship among the average number of hop counts, link lifetime, and path throughput metrics for the protocol. Finally, simulation results show that the proposed formulation can be used to evaluate path throughput accurately in the network.

Secure Approach for Location Aided Routing in Mobile Ad Hoc Network

Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) are self-managing network which consists of distributed nodes that communicate with each other through wireless links with no fixed infrastructure and no centralized control. Due to selfconfiguring and dynamic nature of these networks routing protocol are susceptible to various types of attacks. The black hole attack is one of the noticeable security threats in MANETs. In Black hole attack the packet is redirected to a node that actually does not exist in the network. This paper, presents an approach to overcome black hole in MANETs. In proposed work nodes validate each other by issuing security certificate in digital form to all the other nodes in the network. The proposed method is to be adapted on Location Aided Routing Protocol with Dynamic Adaptation of Request Zone (LARDAR) protocol. This method is capable of detecting and removing black hole nodes in the MANETs. In addition information about angle Θ is kept on route request packet to select optimal path for secure transmission of data packets.

ENHANCED LOCATION BASED SELF-ADAPTIVE ROUTING ALGORITHM FOR WSN IN INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION

Today’s most sensitive research area is industrial automation. Traditionally, wired communication used in industrial automation. Nowadays wireless communication increases robustness of network in industrial automation rather than wired. For this purpose use of WSN is done in industrial automation using ZigBee network, AODV routing protocol is supported by network layer of ZigBee network. In this paper a new routing algorithm is proposed which increases packet delivery ratio and reduces routing overhead by full use of location information of nodes and self-adaptation of request zone.

Cluster Based Geographical Routing (CBGR) for MANETs

-Routing has been the main challenge for ad hoc networks due to dynamic topology as well as resource constraints. High computational overhead and high mobility of the nodes typically require completely GPS enabled MANETs for higher performance. Due to the high mobility of nodes, the network topology of MANETs always changes. This makes it more difficult to find the routes that message packets use when they are routed. In this paper, we propose an Cluster based location routing (CBGR) scheme to improve the route discovery in MANET routing. In this scheme, we first decide a baseline, which is the line between the source cluster head and the destination node, for route discovery. The request packet is broadcasted in a request zone based on the baseline to determine the next gateway node. From the neighboring gateway nodes, with the shortest distance to the baseline is chosen as the next gateway node. The flooding of the packets to the intermediate gateway nodes are reduced since the route discovery packets are only forwarded to certain gateway nodes, which, fall into a determined region. Simulations are performed using NS2. The results illustrate that GBLR performs better compared to other protocols.

Research on Route Recovery Algorithm in Mobile Ad Hoc Network Based on On-the-Fly Strategy

For the local recovery of routing techniques in mobile Ad Hoc network (MANET), the fix problem with link failure is studied as a result of nodes moving relatively or wireless environment changing in mobile Ad Hoc network. It discusses the traditional local repairing methods which utilize the effect on service transmission delay and the successful delivery rate of packets by huge control overheads generated by the flooding throughout the network. In this paper on route-recovery algorithm in mobile Ad Hoc network based on on-the-fly strategy, it creates the repair model by limiting repair request zone within two hops and also builds the repair function so as to fulfill the objective of reducing flooding and controlling expenditures under the premise of meeting repair probability.

A New Approach of Location Based Routing in MANETs

The highly dynamic nature of MANETs results in frequent and unpredictable changes in the network topology, which add to the difficulty and complexity to routing among the mobile nodes within the network. Thus, establishing communication among mobile nodes is a great challenge in itself, resulting in network overloading & discarding of data packets. Nodes can change position quite frequently, which means we need a routing protocol that quickly adapts to the topology changes which is our objective.  In this paper focus has been put on the strategy to address the packet drop ratio which is an integral and important factor of communication in MANETs by minimizing the request zone. In Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks, as the coverage area increases the packet drop ratio also increases which degrades the network performance and Quality of Service (QOS).Location Aware Routing  will be used as a base protocol for the proposed work which is a class of Reactive protocol to design optimized routing algorithm.

Location-Based Routing Scheme with Adaptive Request Zone in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

Location-Based Routing Scheme with Adaptive Request Zone in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

Performance analysis of Dropped Packets for Location Aided Routing Protocol Using Artificial Intelligence

Location aided routing protocol (LAR) is an on demand protocol in MANET which uses GPS in mobile nodes to find the location of node. It calculates routing when it is needed. LAR protocol has two zones namely expected zone and request zone. The expected zone is circular in shape while request zone is rectangular in shape. Expected zone is determined according to the location of destination and request zone is determined according to the location of source node. When communication starts between sources to destination, the node is not within expected zone; packet is dropped. Therefore, packet is lost or destroyed. This paper proposed a method for dropped packet which randomly checks exactly how many packets is dropped during transmission. This paper proposed an algorithm for wireless LAN.

Convex Hull and Vornoi Diagram Based Routing Protocol for Adhoc Network

The MANET faces major challenges in design of routing protocol due to their highly dynamic topology, poses by mobility. The position based routing algorithm that does not depend on topological information is more suitable than other routing protocol for MANET. In previous position based routing protocol does not consider the traffic patterns of higher layer. In fact, the result of these algorithms and test of connectivity in the network layer level and the used to analyze position based algorithm that do not reflect the true behavior of MANET. In our proposed position based routing protocol, we have made modifications in LAR1 algorithm by changing the request zone region computations. The results of this algorithm are compared with the existing LAR1. The performance of the CHMFR protocols is measured in terms of throughput, success rate and power consumption for varying network size which is efficient as compared to LAR1. We have simulated CHMFR protocol using GloMoSim simulator.