Republic Of Macedonia Research Articles

The power of women in the success of business family: A case study of Kosovo, Albania and North Macedonia

The main objective of this research is to emphasize the significant role women hold in leading family businesses in transitional countries such as Kosovo, North Macedonia, and Albania. It aims to demonstrate how women’s leadership can positively influence business performance, economic advancement and social development in these regions where traditional gender norms are shifting. Additionally, this study explores how empowering women in leadership roles can foster innovation, strengthen resilience, and ensure long-term sustainability for family-owned businesses ultimately contributing to the broader economic progress of these transitioning economies. This research aims to analyze family support, cultural factors and the influence of education on the advancement of women in leadership positions with a particular focus on family businesses. In this empirical research, 490 women from the countries above were included and the sample was randomly selected due to a lack of formal data. The results of the analyses were presented through descriptive analysis, Pearson correlation, Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and T-test. The results indicate that family support has already a significant impacted advancement. Similarly, cultural factors have a positive influence. These factors have changed and are no longer obstacles to women's advancement as in the past, although in some rural countries this is still seen as an obstacle. Another important factor is education where women prioritize before taking leadership positions and continue with various training even after taking positions to be fully prepared to achieve their business objectives.

Costs of treating serious adverse effects of drugs used for treatment of obesity: comparison of selected European countries

Drugs for the treatment of obesity show significant effectiveness, but the adverse effects (ADRs) of these drugs are numerous and varied, and some of them are highly cost-generating. Our research aimed to define the health care utilization pattern in treating ADRs of antiobesity therapy, to compare the costs of treating these ADRs among selected European countries, and to identify the key cost drivers. A comparative analysis of the costs of treating the ADRs of antiobesity drugs in 10 European countries (seven EU members and three from the Western Balkans) was conducted, and the impact of parameters of global health expenditures on them was assessed. There are considerable differences in costs of treating adverse antiobesity drug reactions among European countries: costs of treating gastroesophageal reflux disease varied almost 20 times between North Macedonia (12.6 EUR) and Estonia (202.9 EUR). The Gross Domestic Product per capita was an important cost driver in treating the majority of the ADRs studied (p < .001), except for retinopathy, anaphylaxis, and respiratory disorders. The Domestic Private Health Expenditure increased the costs of treating depression (p = .012), upper respiratory tract infection (p = .008), melanocytic naevus (p = .027), and drug-induced hepatitis (p = .023). Investment in pharmaceuticals, medical goods, and preventive care tended to reduce the costs of treating several ADRs, which are seemingly unrelated to the body site or mechanism. Healthcare utilization and costs of treating ADRs to antiobesity drugs vary significantly among European countries. These differences should be considered when creating inputs for cost-effectiveness and budget impact models to decrease their uncertainty.

Cultural and Behavioral Insights into European Social Media Users: Platform Preferences and Personality Types

The study examines European social media personalities based on age, gender, platform preference, and country of origin. The research sample, which consists of respondents from 19 European countries (Albania, Bosnia &amp; Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Cyprus, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Italy, North Macedonia, Poland, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, and the UK) reflects the general population ratio and predominantly includes middle-aged individuals ensuring representative findings. Almost two-thirds of respondents engage with social media daily, highlighting its pervasive role in European life. Analysis of platform preferences reveals that Facebook and Instagram are the most popular, while TikTok and Snapchat are less favored, particularly among older demographics. The study shows that gender differences are significant, with females favoring Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, and Snapchat, while males prefer LinkedIn and Twitter. This delineation underscores the varying social media consumption habits between genders. The study identifies three primary social media personalities: Lurkers, who passively consume content; Ultras, who exhibit obsessive usage; and Deniers, who balance regular use without dependency. Additional personalities include Ranters, Informers, and Peacocks, each representing unique motivations and engagement styles. This diversity in user behaviors highlights the multifaceted nature of social media engagement in Europe. A country-specific analysis reveals cultural and regional differences in social media use, with distinct preferences and behaviors emerging across Europe. For instance, Germans exhibit unique tendencies with a notable presence among Approval Seekers, Changelings, and Ghosts. Such variations underscore the importance of considering cultural contexts in social media strategies. The findings offer valuable insights for stakeholders, including marketers, policymakers, and platform developers. By understanding these diverse usage patterns, more effective campaigns can be designed, privacy and digital literacy issues can be addressed, and user experiences can be enhanced. This study underscores the integral role of social media in European life and provides a foundation for future research and strategy development.

Employees’ Motivation in the North Macedonian Energy Sector

Objective: This paper investigates the factors that enhance employee motivation within North Macedonia's three largest energy companies (ESM, MEPSO, and EVN Macedonia) and examines how these factors vary in relevance according to employee age.Method: A qualitative approach was employed, involving the creation and distribution of a questionnaire to employees across these companies.Results: The findings indicate that both intrinsic and extrinsic factors contribute positively to employee motivation, though their influence varies among the companies. Additionally, the significance and perceived value of these motivational factors are shown to differ according to employees' age groups.Originality: This is the first study to evaluate employee motivation specifically within the Macedonian energy sector.

2.H. Round table: Health system description and comparison: lessons from the WHO/Observatory Insights series

Abstract The European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies has been working for more than 25 years on the systematic description, analysis and comparison of health systems in Europe. This workshop explores experiences so far with a new series of health system profiles, the Health Systems in Action (HSiA) Insights, launched in 2021 in collaboration with the WHO Regional Office for Europe. The first round of the Insights in 2021 was a pilot series, covering just five countries (Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, North Macedonia, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan). Since then, the series has grown to 13 countries in 2022 and in 2024 is covering almost all WHO Member States that are outside of the European Union (EU). The Insights aim to provide short and easily accessible documents that provide core information on a country’s health system, its key strengths and challenges, how it compares to other health systems in Europe, and how it impacts on the health of its population. This roundtable provides a platform for sharing experiences with devising, writing and using the series so far, bringing in country and comparative perspectives and involving the audience. The objectives of the roundtable are to a) identify best practices for the comparative description and analysis of health systems in the form of a series of country profiles; b) explore the challenges of drawing up country profiles where comparative data are lacking, incomplete or politicized; c) identify ways of disseminating and using country profiles; d) establish an opportunity for cross-country learning and skills development for the writing of health system descriptions and analyses. The roundtable will consist of four speakers. It will start with three very brief country presentations on the Insights for Israel, North Macedonia and Kazakhstan, followed by a brief comparative perspective on how to capture, compare and analyse health workforce trends across a broad set of countries, which is the Spotlight section of the 2024 round of Insights. This will be followed by a broad discussion with audience interventions to bring in the experience of other experts and countries. The moderated discussion will emphasise key learning points on how to devise a comparative series, how to write health system profiles and how best to use them to inform health policy-making. Key messages • The regular monitoring of health systems and policies is challenging, but essential for improving them. • Health system summaries require systematised approaches and up-to-date comparative data. Speakers/Panelists Ruth Waitzberg Technische Universitat Berlin, Berlin, Germany Yerbol Spatayev WHO Country Office Kazakhstan, Astana, Kazakhstan Simona Atanasova WHO Country Office North Macedonia, Skopje, Republic of North Macedonia Tomas Zapata WHO/Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark

Disability-adjusted life years 19 former socialist economies in the European region, 1990-2019

Abstract Background Within the Western Balkan Strategic Partnership Project (Work Package 4: Use of Population Health Metrics for Enhanced Surveillance), we conducted a study to describe health progress in 19 former socialist economies (FSEs) in Europe from 1990 to 2019. Our metric of choice was age and sex-standardized rates per 100,000 population of total disability-adjusted life years (ASR-DALY). Methods We applied joinpoint regression with extracted ASR-DALY data from the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation result tool. The annual per cent change (APC) and average annual per cent change (AAPC) from 1990 to 2019 were analyzed in 19 former socialist economies (FSEs) in Europe, including Albania, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH), Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Poland, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine. Results The ASR-DALY decreased in Estonia (APC1994-1997= -5.2%, p = 0.034; APC2013-2019= -0.7%, p = 0.07), Latvia (APC1994-1997= -6.3%, p = 0.03; APC1997-2007= -1%, p = 0.001; APC2007-2011= -3.9%, p = 0.01), BH (APC1995-1998= -13.3%, p = 0.041; APC1998-2019= -0.5%, p = 0.004), Bulgaria (APC1997-2000= -2.5%, p = 0.022), Lithuania (APC2007-2010= -4.9%, p = 0.018), North Macedonia (APC2007-2011= -1.9%, p = 0.023, APC2011-2019= -0.5%, p = 0.005), Czechia (APC2014-2019= -0.6%, p = 0.014), Moldavia (APC1998-2007= -0.6%, p = 0.06), and Ukraine (APC1995-2008= -0.5%, p = 0.035). Slovenia performed the best amongst the FSEs (ASR-DALY2019: 16677.51 for women, 21985.95 for men and 19134.73 for both sexes), Ukraine the worst (ASR-DALY2019: 26154.88 for women, 47983.60 for men and 35852.17 for both sexes). Conclusions Except for Ukraine, all FSEs in the European region achieved health improvement. The most common was a three-year decline in ASR-DALY. Health policy changes, investments in health care, and harmonization with EU regulations were among the factors contributing to improved population health in the FSEs. Key messages • Bosnia and Herzegovina is the only FSE in Europe with a continuous 24-year decline in total ASR-DALY. • Reducing total ASR-DALY significantly in a three-year time frame is possible.

Restoring trust in vaccination through collective engagement with key populations in Eastern Europe

Abstract Issue/problem COVID-19 vaccination rates remained below 50% in Moldova, North Macedonia, and Serbia, especially among vulnerable populations like pregnant women and those with chronic diseases. This was strengthened by a lack of targeted communication and training for healthcare workers, and COVID-19 fatigue. Strategies to increase vaccine demand and confidence are a global priority, especially among vulnerable populations. Description of the solution From May 2022 to April 2024, the USAID MOMENTUM Routine Immunization Transformation and Equity project employed behavior integration to design a social and behavior change strategy, centering on vaccination as a part of a healthy lifestyle. It was implemented through continuing medical education (CME) and community engagement (CE) workshops with vulnerable populations, supplemented by cross-country learning exchanges. The outcomes provide a framework for public health initiatives aimed at boosting vaccine uptake through innovative, behavior-based methods. Results 1,618 healthcare professionals, able to reach 2.5 to 4.8 million patients, received training in immunization, COVID-19 vaccines, and quality health service, and 99% indicated confidence in applying the knowledge. 265 CE workshops, engaging 4,079 patients, increased awareness and addressed concerns related to vaccination. Of 3,223 patients who were followed up, 47% reported setting an appointment with their doctor regarding vaccination, 27% discussed vaccination with their partners, and 7% proceeded to receive the COVID-19 vaccine. Lessons Behavior Integration helped address key barriers to vaccination and informed the design of strategies (i.e. situating COVID-19 vaccination as part of a healthy lifestyle). Establishing trust with healthcare providers and patients through collective engagement improved health behaviors. Focusing on health as a wider priority helped re-establish the significance of vaccination as part of a healthy lifestyle. Key messages • Behavior science and behavior integration helped identify and address barriers, as well as design tailored interventions to improve vaccination demand and confidence. • Collective engagement, focused on integration of COVID-19 vaccination as part of a healthy lifestyle, achieved results through addressing vaccine hesitance from both sides of the equation.

A Certain Kind of Freedom

Άφρικα: A Certain Kind of Freedom is pivoting on artistic exploration and re-interpretation of a 'difficult' recent past. In part soundwalk, in part performance art, in part punk archaeology, in part getting lost in the dark; the work is a nocturnal rumination bringing together historical bewilderedness with first-person embodied experience of a place. The artist leads a night walk towards and inwards Agios Achillios island in Small Prespa Lake in Greece – near the borders of Albania, and North Macedonia – and back. En route, the walking audience is exposed to wildlife sounds and animal vocalisations, to orchestrated drama, and to historical records directly or indirectly concerning the broader geographical area and its significance during the Greek civil war.

Multi-hazard modeling of erosion and landslide susceptibility at the national scale in the example of North Macedonia

Abstract Due to favorable natural conditions and human impact, the territory of North Macedonia is very susceptible to natural hazards. Steep hillslopes combined with soft rocks (schists on the mountains; sands and sandstones in depressions), erodible soils, semiarid continental climate, and sparse vegetation cover give a high potential for soil erosion and landslides. For this reason, this study presents a multi-hazard approach to geohazard modeling on the national extent in the example of North Macedonia. Utilizing Geographic Information Systems, relevant data about the entire research area were employed to analyze and assess soil erosion and susceptibility to landslides and identify areas prone to both hazards. Using the Gavrilović Erosion Potential Method (EPM), an average value of 0.36 was obtained for the erosion coefficient Z, indicating low to moderate susceptibility to erosion. However, a significant area of the country (9.6%) is susceptible to high and excess erosion rates. For the landslide susceptibility assessment (LSA), the Analytical hierarchy process approach is combined with the statistical method (frequency ratio), showing that 29.3% of the territory belongs to the zone of high and very high landslide susceptibility. Then, the accuracy assessment is performed for both procedures (EPM and LSA), showing acceptable reliability. By overlapping both models, a multi-hazard map is prepared, indicating that 22.3% of North Macedonia territory is highly susceptible to erosion and landslides. The primary objective of multi-hazard modeling is to identify and delineate hazardous areas, thereby aiding in activities to reduce the hazards and mitigate future damage. This becomes particularly significant when considering the impact of climate change, which is associated with increased landslide and erosion susceptibility. The approach based on a national level presented in this work can provide valuable information for regional planning and decision-making processes.

The Princely Burials of the Central Balkans in Context

Despite a consensus that the Late Hallstatt ‘princely’ burials heralded the emergence of the earliest complex societies in the central Balkans, there is room for nuance. In this article, the ‘princely’ burial horizon is examined in light of the opposition between group-oriented and individualizing societies, while accepting that burials are as much an ideological statement as a reflection of social structure. On this theoretical basis, the author presents a study of two groups of ‘princely’ burials in North Macedonia and Bosnia in relation to contemporary and later burials, and with reference to settlement size in the Late Hallstatt and Classical–Hellenistic period. His analysis reveals that the inequality in burial assemblages of the Late Hallstatt ‘princely’ burial horizon decreases in the mortuary record of the fifth–fourth century bc, whereas the settlement size in the Classical–Early Hellenistic suggests emerging differentiation.

RUSSIA’S HYBRID WARFARE IN THE WESTERN BALKANS: GEOPOLITICAL STRATEGIES AND PROXY ACTORS

This paper examines Russia’s hybrid warfare tactics against the Western Balkans, focusing on using direct and indirect methods to exert influence in the region. The study delves into Russia’s strategic use of media manipulation, cyberattacks, and disinformation campaigns, alongside its employment of proxy state and non-state actors such as Serbia, Republika Srpska, and the Serbian Orthodox Church. Leveraging historical, cultural, and religious ties, Russia seeks to destabilize the Western Balkans and prevent closer integration with NATO and the European Union. Special attention is given to the geopolitics of elections, where Russia manipulates electoral processes in countries like Montenegro and North Macedonia to favour pro-Russian or anti-Western political forces. By analyzing key case studies, this paper explores how Russian hybrid warfare exploits regional vulnerabilities—such as ethnic divisions and weak political institutions—while employing tactics of soft power and military cooperation. The findings indicate that Russia’s hybrid warfare, including electoral manipulation, poses a significant threat to regional stability and international security, underscoring the need for strengthened Western engagement to counter Russian influence. This study offers critical insights into the evolving nature of hybrid warfare and its implications for the geopolitical landscape of Southeast Europe.

RUSSIA’S HYBRID WARFARE IN THE WESTERN BALKANS: GEOPOLITICAL STRATEGIES AND PROXY ACTORS

This paper examines Russia’s hybrid warfare tactics against the Western Balkans, focusing on using direct and indirect methods to exert influence in the region. The study delves into Russia’s strategic use of media manipulation, cyberattacks, and disinformation campaigns, alongside its employment of proxy state and non-state actors such as Serbia, Republika Srpska, and the Serbian Orthodox Church. Leveraging historical, cultural, and religious ties, Russia seeks to destabilize the Western Balkans and prevent closer integration with NATO and the European Union. Special attention is given to the geopolitics of elections, where Russia manipulates electoral processes in countries like Montenegro and North Macedonia to favour pro-Russian or anti-Western political forces. By analyzing key case studies, this paper explores how Russian hybrid warfare exploits regional vulnerabilities—such as ethnic divisions and weak political institutions—while employing tactics of soft power and military cooperation. The findings indicate that Russia’s hybrid warfare, including electoral manipulation, poses a significant threat to regional stability and international security, underscoring the need for strengthened Western engagement to counter Russian influence. This study offers critical insights into the evolving nature of hybrid warfare and its implications for the geopolitical landscape of Southeast Europe.

Factors influencing farmers' willingness to provide private land for a coordinated flood mitigation scheme in the Drin basin

AbstractFlooding poses a significant and recurring threat in numerous regions. The adverse impacts of flooding can be mitigated through risk sharing, such as insurance or risk reduction. However, insurance might not be accessible in underdeveloped markets or in instances where floods are too frequent. Similarly, the necessary funding or land for structural measures might not be available. Alternatively, measures could be implemented on private land, either through individual initiatives or as part of a coordinated effort. This approach was explored in the flood‐prone regions of Albania and North Macedonia. A survey conducted among 124 farmers revealed that 73% of them are willing to allocate land for flood mitigation, provided they receive adequate compensation. Furthermore, certain factors increase farmers' willingness to cooperate. A logit model indicated a positive correlation between expectations of future floods (increased severity and frequency), receipt of ex‐ante financial support, positive perception of the effectiveness of agricultural flood mitigation measures, and age. Those who view flood protection as personal responsibility and those more inclined to pay for flood insurance are less likely to cooperate. The findings could be utilized to identify farmers who are likely to contribute to establishing a coordinated effort on a stable basis.

7th ERL Conference Links between Beliefs and Language held at the heart of Europe, in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina – a report

On 27-28 June 2024, the Association for the Educational Role of Language organized the 7th International Pedagogic and Linguistic Conference entitled Links between Beliefs and Language. The conference was held at International University of Sarajevo (IUS) in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in cooperation with the English Language and Literature program. Around 50 scholars presented 38 topics and discussed links between beliefs and language through sociolinguistic, cultural, literary, semantic, instructional, personal, interpersonal and inter-linguistic lenses. The Conference was a unique event that brought together participants from different countries: Poland, Georgia, Estonia, United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, Italy, Oman, Spain, Bulgaria, Norway, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, North Macedonia, Slovenia, Romania and Ukraine. The importance of this scientific and academic event was recognized by the local government, with the Ministry of Science, Higher Education and Youth of Sarajevo Canton granting funds and supporting the Conference. The two-day conference was preceded by a pre-conference meeting, during which...

Management with macroeconomic policies affecting economic development (Case in the republic of North Macedonia)

Management with macroeconomic policies affecting economic development (Case in the republic of North Macedonia)

CALCULATION OF BEARING CAPACITY AND SUBSIDENCE OF INITIAL EMBAY IN IN REK “OSLOMEJ” - KICHEVO, R. NORTH MACEDONIA

This paper presents the geomechanical conditions for the construction of a landfill for ash and slag in REK Oslomej - Kicevo, R. North Macedonia. In this context, geotechnical investigation works and laboratory tests on the construction site, as well as the research and test methodology, are presented, and the obtained results are given in the form of appropriate graphic attachments, tabular views and diagrams. In the second part of the paper, an analysis of the geomechanical conditions for the performance of the ash and slag landfill is made, referring to the conditions for the performance of the projected initial embankments. Several aspects have been analyzed, i.e. the bearing capacity of the base constructed from tailings materials which are characterized by relatively low values of the strength and deformable parameters, forecast subsidence of the base, the possibility of underfoot sliding on the slopes of the embankments, as well as technical conditions for the construction of the embankments themselves. It should be noted that all analyzes are made with assumed values of the material to be incorporated in the embankments, which should be quantitatively and qualitatively defined after the selection of the location for the loan. However, it is appreciated that these analyzes will make their own contribution and will realistically show the expected situation during exploitation of the landfill.

Affordance-based lesson planning in pre-service teacher education

Abstract This article reports on an exploratory study investigating the extent to which affordance-based lesson planning is feasible and useful in pre-service teacher education. After using both affordance-based and outcomes-based lesson plans, trainee teachers in North Macedonia participated in both a survey and interviews. Respondents found both types of lesson plan useful, but in different ways and for different reasons, with some disagreement among the sample in a number of areas. While their considerations of affordance often helped them to prepare and reflect on lessons effectively, they also expressed concern about the time and cognitive challenge required to do so, with many indicating that they would appreciate more agency, both to develop their own pro formas and to explore affordance in alternative ways, such as through discussions. We conclude our article with a number of reflective questions that may be useful to other teacher educators and practicum supervisors.

The effect of the Fitostemin-WP® biostimulator on yield and quality characteristics of rice (Oryza sativa L.)

In order to avoid yield and quality reduction of rice, it is essential to provide nutrition rice plants require. Therefore, a field experiment was conducted at the research area of the Institute of Agriculture - Skopje, Department of Field Crops, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, in Kochani, a rice production region. The experiment was set up to determine the effects of the Fitostemin-WP® biostimulator on some yield and quality properties of an Italian rice variety Opale during the vegetative seasons in 2020 and 2021. Standard agrotechnical methods for crop production were applied. Fitostemin-WP® is an herbal product in the form of powder and it consists of herbal extracts and minerals. It is used for increasing crop yield. The field experiment was arranged in a Zade method with a Fitostemin-WP® treatment and a control one in 3 replications. Only basic fertilizers (350kg/ha NPK and 200kg/ha Urea (46% N)) were applied on the control plot, while the treatment plot, besides basic fertilization, was also treated with Fitostemin-WP® with 100 g/ha dosage once during the vegetation period (tillering stage). The following parameters were examined in this study, namely the biological, grain and straw yield, the number of productive tillers/m2, panicle weight, and milling fractions. Results were analyzed with the ANOVA and LSD test. According to the results from this study, statistically significant differences were not found in these two years of field experiments for the examined parameters. However, the values for the brokens have shown some significant differences between the years, but not between the treatment and the control. This can result from the environmental impact during the vegetative period. More frequent usage of Fitostemin-WP® during the vegetation period of the rice plant may show more significant results.

The intensity of regional food trade among the Western Balkan countries during periods of crisis

This study explores the intensity of food trade among the Western Balkan (WB) countries (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Serbia) during periods of crisis, emphasizing the impact of COVID-19 and the Ukrainian-Russian conflict on regional trade dynamics. The impact of this crisis was measured over three analyzed years: 2018, representing a reference year for comparison, then 2020 as the year affected by COVID-19, and 2022, being affected by the pandemic as well as the Ukrainian-Russian crisis. All data collected are from the “Trade Statistics for International Business Development Database”. Conclusions about the intensity of exchange of agricultural and food products within the WB region were obtained by calculating Regional Intensity of Trade of Export (RITE) and Regional Intensity of Trade of Import (RITI). Higher values than 1 indicate intensity in trade or dominance of trade in specific products with a particular region compared with the trade with the world. In the case of trade among the WB countries, the COVID-19 crisis did not affect the increase in trade volume. However, there was an increase in intra-regional trade by about 50% when compared with 2020 and 2022. The RITE coefficients for all countries except Albania were greater than 1, indicating intensified export of agricultural and food products to the WB region compared with their global export. The RITI index is very important in crisis, as it somewhat answers the question of who "feeds" the country during crises. All WB countries had the RITI indices greater than 1, indicating a higher intensity of food imports from the region compared with the world. According to this research, the RIT coefficients measured generally declined in the years of crises, meaning that the countries shifted their export focus to other regions but still the most significant foreign and intense trade partners in agricultural and food products were countries from the region.

Influence of the seeding rate, row spacing, and cultivar on alfalfa forage yield in the first production year

The cultivated lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) is the most widely grown forage legume, mainly due to its high nutritive quality and yield. The objective of this study was to provide information about the optimal seeding rate and row spacing for alfalfa cultivation under rainfed conditions in the Republic of North Macedonia. Alfalfa was sown in the fall of 2020 using randomized complete block design in a split-split plot arrangement with three replications. The effects of two seeding rates (8 and 16 kg ha-1) and two row spaces (20 and 40 cm) were examined on the fresh forage yield (FFY) and dry matter yield (DMY) of four alfalfa cultivars. Based on the evaluation, the sowing method (row spacing) and cultivar choice have shown a significant impact on the obtained forage yield. Higher average yield of fresh (73.7 t ha-1) and dry (20.3 t ha-1) forage was achieved at a sowing distance of 20 cm. Since the seeding rate did not significantly impact the FFY and DMY, in regions with a temperate climate, it is recommended that lower seeding rates than 16 kg ha-1 should be used in order to have sufficient and cost-effective alfalfa production. The inevitable issues for increasing alfalfa production are the selection of an appropriate cultivar with good adaptability to recent climate change within compatible establishment methods.