Reproductive Tourism Research Articles

Re/Thinking Bioethics: Reproduction and Non-Reproduction in an Intersectional Bioethics’ Perspective

The article begins by reconstructing the main feminist bioethics perspective as a “new discourse” within the official bioethical discussion. It illustrates how the moral discussion and juridification have contributed to remove reproduction and non-reproduction from the personal and intimate context, reinventing them as a “states business”. This process framed these issues in terms of “duties”, “rights”, “family planning”, “demography”, and “population policy”. In this manner, law and morality have helped to reinforce a specific construct of fertility, motherhood, and family. By comparing two interrelated forms of Cross Border Reproductive Care (CBRC), concerning abortion and surrogacy, the article analyses how bioethical and legal frameworks – through their polarized and dichotomic discussion between law and morality – confirm and strengthen gender injustice in reproductive life. That comparison of cross-border travels highlights that surrogacy and abortion restrictions stem from a shared social and legal paradigm that relies on traditional gender roles and reveals how the stratification of reproduction is based on multiple discrimination along the lines of gender, race, and class. Finally, the article introduces an intersectional bioethics point of view on reproductive health to re-read the phenomena of non-reproductive and reproductive tourism and to propose a critique of the main global Northern feminist bioethical discourses and ethical-philosophical paradigms.

LEGAL CONTROVERSIES IN CROSS-BORDER SURROGACY: A CENTRAL EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVE ON THE RECOGNITION OF LEGAL PARENTHOOD THROUGH SURROGACY ESTABLISHED ABROAD

Background: This paper explores the legal field of surrogacy from a Central European perspective, focusing on how countries such as Austria, Germany, and Switzerland address the recognition of parental status established abroad. While the prevailing attitude among Central European states is to prohibit surrogacy within their national laws, there is an increasing tendency to bypass these bans by seeking surrogacy services abroad. This phenomenon, termed reproductive tourism, raises complex legal questions about the recognition of foreign parental status determinations. Methods: The methods used include a comprehensive review of international and autonomous national legal rules as well as a comparative analysis of case law from Central European courts regarding cross-border surrogacy and parenthood recognition. The study examines legal controversies employing Austrian family law as an example to assess highly topical issues arising from surrogacy. It incorporates data from various legal sources, including the Austrian Constitutional Court, the German Federal Court of Justice, the Swiss Federal Supreme Court, and the European Court of Human Rights. Results and conclusions: The findings reveal significant differences between Austria, Germany, and Switzerland regarding the recognition of parental status established by way of surrogacy abroad. While supreme court decisions in these countries tend to prioritise the best interests of the child – often recognising foreign surrogacy arrangements to avoid leaving children without legal parents – their judicial approaches differ considerably. The Austrian Constitutional Court adopts a more inclusive approach by accepting foreign determinations from any authority, such as birth certificates, under the concept of automatic recognition. In contrast, the German and Swiss supreme courts acknowledge only formal court decisions. For cross-border surrogacy cases that do not fulfil this requirement, these countries apply the national law of the child's habitual residence or, as a fallback, the law of the intended parents’ country of origin. Since both German and Swiss law categorically forbid surrogacy, only the genetic father is typically recognised, while the intended mother is directed to adoption. This aligns with the opinion of the ECtHR, which still considers the method of establishing parenthood to be within the sovereignty of a state. This article advocates for a balanced approach that respects both the legal principles of national states and the fundamental rights of children born through an arrangement with a surrogate mother in another country.

EXAMINING LEGAL REGULATIONS OF THE SURROGACY INSTITUTION: A COMPREHENSIVE FRAMEWORK AND ONGOING CHALLENGES

This article examines the legal and ethical complexities of surrogacy, highlighting the need for consistent legal frameworks to protect the rights of all parties involved. Surrogacy, offering hope to individuals and couples facing infertility, also presents legal challenges due to varying international and national views on its legality and ethics. The absence of uniform laws leads to issues like „reproductive tourism,” where people seek surrogacy in countries with lenient regulations, potentially leading to exploitation due to economic disparities. A major concern is the determination of parental rights and legal parentage, often leading to disputes and emotional distress due to unclear laws. This lack of clarity necessitates definitive legislation to safeguard everyone involved in surrogacy arrangements. Additionally, the involvement of financial compensation raises questions about the commodification of reproduction and the ethical implications of paying for a child’s birth. The article stresses that surrogacy laws must be comprehensive and uniform to protect children’s rights, surrogates, and biological parents. It calls for a unified approach to regulation, addressing concerns of exploitation, commodification, and the potential use of surrogacy for child trafficking, ensuring that arrangements are voluntary, free from coercion, and ethically sound

Debate 2: Cross Border Reproductive Care Should Be Banned

Motion: For The opinions expressed in this debate are not the personal opinions of the presenter but are points raised to provide a debate. CBRC is defined as “movement of persons from one jurisdiction to another in order to access or provide treatment. Often called “reproductive tourism” but it is “reproductive exile” Existed for many years before fertility treatment-Irish women going to England for abortion. Why? Either unavailable or more affordable. Avoid legal, religious, or ethical restrictions Do we want to encourage breaking the laws of home? Do we encourage exploitation of poor donors/surrogates? Do we want to encourage avoidance of record keeping of donors? CONCERNS Health and safety Legal difficulties, e.g., passport for child Exploitation Children as a “commodity” Children abandoned e.g., Abnormalities SAFEGUARDS Balance rights of individuals against rights of children Need global guidelines/laws- UNTIL THEN; BAN CBRC. Motion: Against Cross-border reproductive care (CBRC) has become a dynamic global phenomenon encompassing various fertility treatments and practices, including surrogacy, embryo donation, age limit, marital status, cost considerations, advanced technology, support systems, known clinician or clinic preference, frozen embryo use, international job transfers, sex selection, PGTA restrictions, and restrictions on the number of embryos transferred. This debate revolves around the motion against banning CBRC, acknowledging its multifaceted nature and the need for comprehensive evaluation of its legal, ethical, and economic implications. CBRC has emerged as a lifeline for individuals facing restrictive reproductive laws in their home countries, offering hope and expanded choices for family building. Critics express concerns over potential exploitation, inadequate regulations, and safety risks associated with CBRC. Ethical dilemmas arise regarding patient autonomy, justice, and discrimination, particularly for LGBTQI individuals seeking fertility treatments in less legally restrictive countries. International organizations such as ESHRE, ASRM, ICMART, and IFFS have initiated efforts to collect data and set guidelines for CBRC. However, more work is needed to establish standardized data registries and harmonize laws to accurately assess the magnitude and scope of CBRC worldwide. A balanced approach to CBRC involves collaborative global governance and cooperation to address challenges while upholding patient rights and ensuring responsible practices. Facilitating access to advanced fertility treatments and safeguarding against potential risks are paramount considerations in shaping the future of cross-border reproductive care. In conclusion, the complexities surrounding CBRC warrant thoughtful deliberation and international collaboration. Rather than imposing a blanket ban, an inclusive approach focusing on transparency, safety, and ethical considerations will foster a responsible and balanced implementation of cross-border reproductive care.

Attitudes toward Reproductive Tourism and Cross border reproductive care (CBRC): Legal, Economic, Ethical issues and dilemmas, possibilities and limitations

The goal of the present study is to discuss the issue of Cross-Border Reproductive Care known as CBRC and Reproductive Tourism. The subject is of great interest as this type of tourism has been flourishing in recent years, without, however, being thoroughly researched, regarding the very important, health, quality of medical care, financial, ethics, legality and transparency or illegality, aspects concerning the processes that are carried out for the desired result of human reproduction. In addition, one of the sharpest-increasing types of Cross-Border Reproductive Care is international surrogacy. Thousands of interested people travel abroad for IVF and ICSI treatment, or with the aim to employ the paid services of foreign surrogates. The search for solutions has made CBRC a global industry. It is a multibillion-euro international industry introducing unique legal, financial, ethical, and risk-management challenges and disputes.
 The current study addressed this gap by examining Greek citizens’ attitudes toward Reproductive Tourism and Cross border reproductive and their legal, financial, ethical, consequences. To test the research hypotheses, a survey was conducted on 652 Greek citizens, who answered a questionnaire, which was distributed electronically in the format of a Google form. For the data analysis the study used the multiple correspondence analysis – MCA of sphere of multivariate data analysis.
 The results discuss, as far as the legal dimensions are concerned, the restriction on specific reproductive treatments in the country of residence. IVF and ICSI are allowed in almost all countries but there are legal restrictions regarding the age of the woman or the couple, unmarried couples, single woman, gay, transgender and same-sex couples. As far as the financial dimension of the CBRC is concerned, the study discusses the lack of financial data that is a natural consequence of the lack of both national and global registers. The cost of infertility treatment seems to be one of the most basic reasons for those interested to seek assisted reproductive services outside the borders of their country of origin and residence, and the commercialization of health is an ethical issue that deserves further study in relation to the country of destination. In addition, the study discusses main ethical issues regarding donors and surrogate mothers, among others, which have to do with their exploitation, their moral and physical harm, possible child abuse, parental rights and the sale of babies which are considered of a major importance. Donor or surrogate mothers may suffer from serious and even life-threatening complications. Donor or surrogate mothers from low and economic backgrounds do not have the possibility of legal support and coverage and cannot claim parental rights. Additionally, the study debates the high cost of treatments, health and care benefits, the economic exploitation of women from countries with weak economies, the instrumentalization of women, the legal issues and rights of descendants born in destination countries and in terms of their repatriation, the correct information and informed consent for the medical procedures to be performed, as well as many others because the list is long.
 According to the study the need that is obvious, due to the great impact of the CBRC, concerns the creation of a universal protocol through the European Council and the College of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (EBCOG) as well as the American College of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (ACOG) to remove all the above mentioned issues , issues and moral dilemmas that above all will guarantee the good of health, justice, non-harm, the good of justice, autonomy and self-determination and finally, human rights.

Classification and Conceptualization of Health and Reproductive Tourism Concepts: Greece as an example

The purpose of this article is to study Health Tourism and in particular Medical Tourism in Greece, which is growing rapidly on a global scale. Medical Assisted Reproduction, as Health Tourism, is a pillar of development of the countries where it is practiced, contributing dynamically to the gross domestic product. The methodology of the research was based on the review of the provisions of the Greek legal rules and the most recent international literature. Through the results of the study, the actual dimensions of the definitions of the science of tourism are given and these dimensions are delineated based on contemporary literature and Greek legislation.

Prospects for Regulating the Right to Posthumous Reproduction in the Context of War in Ukraine: Foreign Experience and Formation of Legal Support for the Realisation of Reproductive Rights of Military Personnel

Background: This article focuses on the analysis of posthumous reproduction regulation perspectives in Ukraine through the lens of war risks, considering how the reproductive rights of male and female military personnel could be best guaranteed. In particular, the peculiarities of different legal and ethical problems, like formal requirements for the disposal of reproductive biological material and embryos in case of death, as well as issues of inheritance and establishment of paternity/maternity, are disclosed. The problem of posthumous reproduction legal regulation unification in the application of technology of posthumous reproduction is considered. Attention is also focused on the possibility of reproductive tourism for the sake of posthumous reproduction. Methods: The methodological framework of the study was a range of philosophical, general, and legal methods. The-dialectical method of cognition made it possible to investigate the problem’s social and ethical content and legal form and conduct a systematic theoretical and legal analysis of the applying posthumous reproduction in practice, especially under the scope of risks for health and life, which are conditioned by war in Ukraine. Thanks to the comparative method, the diversity of posthumous reproduction regulation models worldwide was investigated and compared with current Ukrainian draft Laws, particularly considering which of the models listed could best fit the Ukrainian law and moral traditions and the current situation in our country. With the help of a formal-legal approach, the content and peculiarities of contractual and legal practice were analysed. Results and Conclusions: It was comprehensively considered that posthumous reproduction should be allowed and regulated in the special law of Ukraine, which must perform the clear and justified legal framework to protect the rights of all participants of these sensitive relationships: consumers and performers of these reproductive services, as well as so-called postmortal children.

Fertility tourism: A systematic review

PurposeThe aim of this article is to review the literature on fertility tourism in terms of social policy implications. There has been a global growth in interest in fertility tourism, especially amongst these in developed countries travelling to developing countries for fertility needs. Due to women's increased involvement in the workforce and changing societal norms, the age at which females start having children has risen resulting in a need for many to seek fertility help. These developments have led to a growth in fertility tourism and related services.Design/methodology/approachThe authors undertake a systematic literature review on fertility tourism to identify cognate research themes that relate to social policies such as assisted reproduction facilities, medical tourism and changing societal attitudes.FindingsThe findings of the study have important implications for social policy particularly regarding the tourism and health industry, practitioners and policymakers. This involves focussing on new geographic regions that are underrepresented in current research but have a high interest in fertility tourism. Currently much of the research is centred around western contexts but as evident in our review newly emerging markets in countries that have high infertility rates requires further attention. In addition, the authors provide directions for future research avenues that focus on how to evaluate changing social policies with regards to reproductive choices.Originality/valueWhilst there has been much discussion in the media about fertility tourism there is limited knowledge about social policies related to human reproductive systems, so this article is amongst the first to discuss societal implications.

Lesbian couples’ childbearing experiences using assisted reproductive technology: A netnography study

ObjectiveThis study aimed to explore how Chinese lesbian couples perceived having children through assisted reproductive technology (ART) and its impact on their experiences of family formation. DesignThis study adopted netnography to investigate online forum data created by self-identified lesbian couples in relation to assisted reproduction. Summative content analysis was used to analyse data. FindingsBased on data analysis, A luan B huai, in which a lesbian conceives a child using her partner's egg, was seen as the best way to establish a family because it created a sense of symbolic connectedness with the child for both of them. Moreover, lesbian couples also indicated the crucial role that having children plays in maintaining family harmony, despite their opposition to heterosexual family traditions. With the stratification of reproductive tourism, certain groups of lesbians – for instance, those with limited social and cultural capital – might be at a disadvantage in the global setting of reproductive tourism. Conclusions and implicationsLesbian couples valued the benefits of ART in assisting them to achieve their childbearing goals and build a family. Healthcare providers should take the initiative to enhance fertility care by addressing the concerns and unique challenges faced by lesbian populations.

Surrogacy (Regulation) bill 2020 and its implications on the reproductive tourism industry in India

Surrogacy in India is an unfettered and unregulated practice which is being carried out blatantly without any legal sanction. The guidelines issued by the Indian Council of Medical Research to regulate clinics running Surrogacy arrangements under the umbrella of Artificial Reproductive Technique are the current driving force of this Fertility Tourism Industry. The codified law is yet to be adopted and implemented. The growth in the assisted reproductive technology (ART) methods is the recognition of the fact that infertility as a medical condition is a huge impediment in the overall well-being of couples and cannot be overlooked, especially in a patriarchal society like India. A woman is respected as a wife only if she is a mother of a child so that her husband's masculinity and sexual potency is proved and the lineage continues. The practice of nourishing another's fetus in the womb is known as surrogacy. Surrogacy has been the most contentious use of ARTs. These include the possibility of finding substitutes not only for parental genetic material but also for the womb. Surrogacy is a tripartite agreement which includes the intending parents, the surrogacy clinics, and the surrogate woman who agree to commission a pregnancy on behalf of another woman, ready to relinquish all her rights on the child born out of the arrangement for a monetary remuneration. The practice of surrogacy involves social, moral, legal, ethical, and scientific issues in an attempt to harmonize conflicting interests. This paper will focus on the new Surrogacy Bill 2020 and its implications on the medical infertility tourism industry in India.

JUNGLES OF UKRAINIAN LEGISLATION ON EGG DONATION

The aim: To study the current regulation on egg donation in Ukraine as one of the most attractive destinations for reproductive tourism, establish the current loopholes in the legal framework to be addressed when amending Ukrainian legal rules. Materials and methods: The article is based on studying international and regional legal acts, jurisprudence of European Court of Human rights, pieces of national Ukrainian legislation, law drafts submitted to Ukrainian parliament and legal doctrine. The methodology of the article includes dialectical, comparative method and the method of systematic and structural analysis. Conclusions: Existing legal framework in Ukraine has some serious lacunas that can result in violation of rights and interests of donors and of the children. Firstly, the state does not keep the unique state register of donors. Secondly, there are no rules on compensation for egg donor. Lastly, the current Ukrainian legislation does not contain provisions ensuring protection of the child`s right to know about one`s genetic origin, and thus to obtain the identifying infor-mation about the donor. All these issues should be addressed in order to establish a fair balance between the rights and the interests of donors, recipients, the child and the society.

Reproductive birth control after the coronavirus pandemic

Changes in measures and instruments of birth control are one of the consequences of the coronavirus pandemic in all countries with increased significance of reproductive components, i.e. concerning physiological capabilities of conception, gestation and childbirth. Pandemic-associated measures had diverse impacts on restrictive (aimed at reducing fertility) and expansionary (aimed at increasing fertility) methods of reproductive regulation: it did not take methods of pregnancy prevention and artificial termination of pregnancy long to adapt to the new conditions without changing the established trends, while assisted reproductive technologies, following administrative bans of the first days of mass lockdowns, demonstrated new development directions upon removal of bans. Against the background of the progress in the medical component, increasingly bringing in- vitro fertilization closer to natural conception, the scale of state funding and the number of free of charge programs for patients have increased, however, due to anti-epidemic control, cross-border reproductive care or fertility tourism, relevant for surrogacy and reproductive donation, has become more complicated. In Russia, this has intensified public discussions and contributed to further elaboration of reproductive legislation.

A critique of baby making supermarts: Surrogacy clinics in Kishwar Desai’s Origins of Love (2012)

This paper explores the exploitation of commercial surrogates at the hands of the various stakeholders and agents of the fertility industry in Kishwar Desai’s novel Origins of Love (2012). It begins with a brief description of the advances in the field of infertility treatment and the tailored options of the Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ARTs) for conceiving a child. It then traces the practice of surrogacy in mythology and explores how it is different from present day surrogacy. It further points out why ARTs is preferred over adoption by prospective parents and how this preference has led to the emergence of fertility clinics as the new baby supermarts, from where the parents can ‘buy’ egg, sperm and customised babies. The paper also throws light on how this trend of baby shopping makes fertility clinics operate akin to any other commercial industry and how in the novel Desai has depicted the inherent flaws of this phenomenon of baby shopping. It critically examines the rapid expansion of Reproductive Tourism due to transnational commercial gestational surrogacy and the huge popularity of India as a surrogacy hub, as depicted in Desai’s novel. The paper illustrates how surrogacy not only involves exploitation of women’s reproductive capacity but also encompasses physical, emotional, psychological and economic exploitation. The paper ends with a scrutiny of the blatant violation of medical ethics in the field of ARTs and the potentially dangerous long-term implications that these technological advancements can have on women’s health and the society at large.

The Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021: A Critique.

In vitro fertilization (IVF) and surrogacy have enabled many to achieve their dreams of parenthood. With a turnover of $500 million, reproductive tourism in India has helped transform the country into a "global baby factory." However, as the surrogacy industry grew, so did concerns of women's exploitation, commodification of motherhood, and human rights violations. In an effort to prevent women from being exploited, the Indian government had taken successive administrative measures to regulate surrogacy. The Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill, 2016 and Assisted Reproductive Technologies Bill 2008 were introduced in the Parliament to regulate various aspects of surrogacy arrangements. Yet, it was not until 25January 2022, that the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021 went into effect. The Act does, however, leave certain important points unaddressed. The article claims that the legislation's purposeful exclusion of the LGBTQ population and emphasis on "familial altruism" stinks of inequity and moral conservatism. It also delineates the mechanics of altruistic surrogacy by examining documents that illustrate how the connections between money and morality are framed via the framing of altruism. The article therefore demands that a comprehensive dialogue must be held considering the socio-economic realities of Indian society, or else India risks enacting yet another law that cannot be implemented or that society dislikes.

Fertility Tourism: The legal side of this phenomenon without borders

Fertility, reproductive or procreative tourism are all new terms which designate a growing trend of the 21st century, namely the movement of people to other countries in order to undergo fertility treatment. Thus, this phenomenon implies multiple legal, bioethical, sociological issues and more, which need to be taken into consideration both by the national policymakers and by the ones seeking for such treatments abroad. This review article will try to offer a bigger picture by focusing on the particularities of the national laws on medical assisted reproduction of four representative EU countries, namely Germany, Austria, Italy and France and on interpreting how the restrictions in one state could boost the fertility tourism industry in other ones. The situation in each country will be depicted in a comparative manner, tackling the legislation, regulations and even relevant domestic jurisprudence on topics such as gamete donation and its anonymity regime, post-mortem reproduction, surrogacy services and cryopreservation. Moreover, it will be determined who is entitled to have fertility treatment in each of the countries subject of the analysis and how do these states fund the procedures. Furthermore, the most popular non-EU countries of destination will be presented and why one would prefer to undergo fertility treatment there. In the end, the review article will reflect if there are indeed real chances of creating strong national,European or international policies regarding fertility treatments.

Legal Regulation of Cross-border Surrogacy: A Comparison Based on China, Vietnam, and Russia

In the era of advanced medical technology and frequent international exchanges, reproductive tourism is on the rise, the problems it poses have attracted the attention of countries. Taking China, Vietnam, and Russia as research samples, the article points out the differences laws on surrogacy create opportunities for intending parents to circumvent domestic law. The recognition of parental rights of prospective parents, according to the best interests of children, makes it even less worrying. From the perspective of fundamental rights, the article argues that surrogacy is the only means of realizing reproduction for people suffering from uterine diseases. 'External tolerance' will intensify the conflicts between the rich and the poor and lead to high costs of unidentified evidence collection. That is why prior supervision is necessary. The author proposes that legislation should explicitly allow limited surrogacy and regulate the conditions and parenthood so that it can apply under control. At the international level, China, Vietnam, and Russia face the common problem of surrogate children's rights. Based on the accumulation of multilateral or bilateral treaties, they should actively participate in and promote the process of global conventions based on common concerns while paying attention to the progress of HCCH

Analyzing the Path of Reproductive Tourism and its Role in Supporting Tourism Demand in Iraq

Travel to obtain reproductive services is a catalyst for all types of medical tourism, and is economical because of the low costs of services abroad. Reproductive tourism represents people crossing international borders to access reproductive technologies, to achieve their desire for a hereditary child, because they are unable to produce this child through natural means, as well as the desire to spend money to produce the child.

Women’s Rights in India: Special Reference to Motherhood and Surrogacy

Reproductive medical tourism has grown more popular, with India serving as a major destination for people from all over the world. During the past several decades, many childless couples have travelled to India in search of surrogacy. In India, the legal status of surrogacy is unmistakable. Gestational surrogacy is legal in India. One of the few nations where commercial surrogacy is still legal in India. However, there is no legal prohibition against commercial surrogacy in India. This suggests that although commercial surrogacy is not illegal in India, neither is there specific legislation regulating it. Even while women have benefited from increased access to educational and employment opportunities as a result of globalisation, the gap between the gender has only widened on a global and local scale. Consequently, gender contradictions are not unique to the surrogacy industry but characterise women's outsourced work everywhere.

REGULATION OF REPRODUCTIVE CLONING AND INHERITABLE GENETIC MODIFICATIONS ON HUMANS - PERILS AND DEFICIENCIES

Harms arising from reproductive cloning or inheritable genetic modifications, for the time being, seem significant. This is supported by the simple fact that the first cloned monkeys were short-lived or by the fact that inheritable genetic modifications still carry a high chance of getting “off-target” results, which could result in serious health problems. Inheritable genetic modifications, in particular, have a high therapeutic potential, and it is suggested that this technology’s comprehension is shifting from an absolute ban, to concerns over safety issues. International law can prove to be facilitative when it comes to deciding which new technology should be prohibited, restricted or allowed, having in mind possible consequences and the so-called phenomenon of reproductive tourism. Legally binding regulation of both technologies has proven challenging at the universal level. However, there has been some progress in Europe on that matter. Harms arising from inheritable genetic modifications seem even higher than in the case of reproductive cloning, since they have the potential to affect the whole of humanity, including future generations. The Criminal Code of Serbia and the Constitution of the Republic of Serbia prohibit reproductive cloning. However, the prohibition of inheritable genetic modifications on humans is not regulated explicitly in the Criminal Code of Serbia, making this technology seem more acceptable or less harmful.

Reproduction as consumption: unravelling the sociological shaping of reproductive tourism market in China

ABSTRACT Human reproduction is increasingly marketised with technologies that alter the traditional parameters of parenthood and childbirth, casting doubt on the legitimacy of the premises of biological foundationalism. This conceptual paper explores the sociology of markets by conceptualising the emergence of the reproductive tourism market in China as the outcome of institutional work. Drawing on a historical trajectory that extends from the Maoist era to the Reformation and Post-reformation era, we demonstrate how the reproductive tourism market emerges as a result of a combination of historical, political, socio-cultural forces, epitomising a social process of market development. This study demonstrates how technology and the proliferation of consumer culture have transformed parenthood in China into a new form of conspicuous consumption, and addresses a relatively infrequently studied topic in current marketing literature, the nexus of geneticized markets and consumer culture.