Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Research Articles

The Immune Response in Two Models of Traumatic Injury of the Immature Brain.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can cause major disability and increases the risk of neurodegeneration. Post-TBI, there is infiltration of peripheral myeloid and lymphoid cells; there is limited information on the peripheral immune response post-TBI in the immature brain-where injury may interfere with neurodevelopment. We carried out two injury types in juvenile mice: invasive TBI with a controlled cortical impact (CCI) and repetitive mild TBI (rmTBI) using weight drop injury and analysed the response at 5- and 35-days post-injury. In the two models, we detected the brain infiltration of immune cells (e.g., neutrophils, monocytes, dendritic cells, CD4+ T cells, and NK cells). There were increases in macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells in the spleen, increases in dendritic cells in blood, and increases in CD8+ T cells and B cells in lymph nodes. These results indicate a complex peripheral immune response post-TBI in the immature brain, with differences between an invasive injury and a repetitive mild injury.

PPARγ activation ameliorates cognitive impairment and chronic microglial activation in the aftermath of r-mTBI

Chronic neuroinflammation and microglial activation are key mediators of the secondary injury cascades and cognitive impairment that follow exposure to repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (r-mTBI). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) is expressed on microglia and brain resident myeloid cell types and their signaling plays a major anti-inflammatory role in modulating microglial responses. At chronic timepoints following injury, constitutive PPARγ signaling is thought to be dysregulated, thus releasing the inhibitory brakes on chronically activated microglia. Increasing evidence suggests that thiazolidinediones (TZDs), a class of compounds approved from the treatment of diabetes mellitus, effectively reduce neuroinflammation and chronic microglial activation by activating the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ). The present study used a closed-head r-mTBI model to investigate the influence of the TZD Pioglitazone on cognitive function and neuroinflammation in the aftermath of r-mTBI exposure. We revealed that Pioglitazone treatment attenuated spatial learning and memory impairments at 6 months post-injury and reduced the expression of reactive microglia and astrocyte markers in the cortex, hippocampus, and corpus callosum. We then examined whether Pioglitazone treatment altered inflammatory signaling mechanisms in isolated microglia and confirmed downregulation of proinflammatory transcription factors and cytokine levels. To further investigate microglial-specific mechanisms underlying PPARγ-mediated neuroprotection, we generated a novel tamoxifen-inducible microglial-specific PPARγ overexpression mouse line and examined its influence on microglial phenotype following injury. Using RNA sequencing, we revealed that PPARγ overexpression ameliorates microglial activation, promotes the activation of pathways associated with wound healing and tissue repair (such as: IL10, IL4 and NGF pathways), and inhibits the adoption of a disease-associated microglia-like (DAM-like) phenotype. This study provides insight into the role of PPARγ as a critical regulator of the neuroinflammatory cascade that follows r-mTBI in mice and demonstrates that the use of PPARγ agonists such as Pioglitazone and newer generation TZDs hold strong therapeutic potential to prevent the chronic neurodegenerative sequelae of r-mTBI.

Age dictates brain functional connectivity and axonal integrity following repetitive mild traumatic brain injuries in mice

Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) present a major public health challenge, demanding an in-depth understanding of age-specific symptoms and risk factors. Aging not only significantly influences brain function and plasticity but also elevates the risk of hospitalizations and death following TBIs. Repetitive mild TBIs (rmTBI) compound these issues, resulting in cumulative and long-term brain damage in the brain. In this study, we investigate the impact of age on brain network changes and white matter properties following rmTBI by employing a multi-modal approach that integrates resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rsfMRI), graph theory analysis, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging (NODDI). Our hypothesis is that the effects of rmTBI are worsened in aged animals, with this group showing more pronounced alterations in brain connectivity and white matter structure. Utilizing the closed-head impact model of engineered rotational acceleration (CHIMERA) model, we conducted rmTBIs or sham (control) procedures on young (2.5–3-months-old) and aged (22-months-old) male and female mice to model high-risk groups. Functional and structural imaging unveiled age-related reductions in communication efficiency between brain regions, while injuries induced opposhigh-risking effects on the small-world index across age groups, influencing network segregation. Functional connectivity analysis also identified alterations in 79 out of 148 brain regions by age, treatment (sham vs. rmTBI), or their interaction. Injuries exerted pronounced effects on sensory integration areas, including insular and motor cortices. Age-related disruptions in white matter integrity were observed, indicating alterations in various diffusion directions (mean diffusivity, radial diffusivity, axial diffusivity, and fractional anisotropy) and density neurite properties (dispersion index, intracellular and isotropic volume fraction). Neuroinflammation, assessed through Iba-1 and GFAP markers, correlated with higher dispersion in the optic tract, suggesting a neuroinflammatory response in injured aged animals compared to sham aged. These findings offer insight into the interplay between age, injuries, and brain connectivity, shedding light on the long-term consequences of rmTBI.

Dysregulation of kappa opioid receptor neuromodulation of lateral habenula synaptic function following a repetitive mild traumatic brain injury

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) increases the risk of affective disorders, anxiety and substance use disorder. The lateral habenula (LHb) plays an important role in pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. Recently, we demonstrated a causal link between mTBI-induced LHb hyperactivity due to excitation/inhibition (E/I) imbalance and motivational deficits in male mice using a repetitive closed head injury mTBI model. A major neuromodulatory system that is responsive to traumatic brain injuries, influences affective states and also modulates LHb activity is the dynorphin/kappa opioid receptor (Dyn/KOR) system. However, the effects of mTBI on KOR neuromodulation of LHb function are unknown. Here, we first used retrograde tracing in male and female Cre mouse lines and identified several major KOR-expressing and two prominent Dyn-expressing inputs projecting to the mouse LHb, highlighting the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) as the main LHb-projecting Dyn inputs that regulate KOR signaling to the LHb. We then functionally evaluated the effects of in vitro KOR modulation of spontaneous synaptic activity within the LHb of male and female sham and mTBI mice at 4 week post-injury. We observed sex-specific differences in spontaneous release of glutamate and GABA from presynaptic terminals onto LHb neurons with higher levels of presynaptic glutamate and GABA release in females compared to male mice. However, KOR effects on the spontaneous E/I ratios and synaptic drive ratio within the LHb did not differ between male and female sham and mTBI mice. KOR activation generally suppressed spontaneous glutamatergic transmission without altering GABAergic transmission, resulting in a significant but sex-similar reduction in net spontaneous E/I and synaptic drive ratios in LHb neurons of sham mice. Following mTBI, while responses to KOR activation at LHb glutamatergic synapses remained intact, LHb GABAergic synapses acquired an additional sensitivity to KOR-mediated inhibition where we observed a reduction in GABA release probability in response to KOR stimulation in LHb neurons of mTBI mice. Further analysis of percent change in spontaneous synaptic ratios induced by KOR activation revealed that independent of sex mTBI switches KOR-driven synaptic inhibition of LHb neurons (normally observed in sham mice) in a subset of mTBI mice toward synaptic excitation resulting in mTBI-induced divergence of KOR actions within the LHb. Overall, we uncovered the sources of major Dyn/KOR-expressing synaptic inputs projecting to the mouse LHb. We demonstrate that an engagement of intra-LHb Dyn/KOR signaling provides a global KOR-driven synaptic inhibition within the mouse LHb independent of sex. The additional engagement of KOR-mediated action on LHb GABAergic transmission by mTBI could contribute to the E/I imbalance after mTBI, with Dyn/KOR signaling serving as a disinhibitory mechanism for LHb neurons of a subset of mTBI mice.

Anisotropy component of DTI reveals long-term neuroinflammation following repetitive mild traumatic brain injury in rats

BackgroundThis study aimed to investigate the long-term effects of repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (rmTBI) with varying inter-injury intervals by measuring diffusion tensor metrics, including mean diffusivity (MD), fractional anisotropy (FA), and diffusion magnitude (L) and pure anisotropy (q).MethodsEighteen rats were randomly divided into three groups: short-interval rmTBI (n = 6), long-interval rmTBI (n = 6), and sham controls (n = 6). MD, FA, L, and q values were analyzed from longitudinal diffusion tensor imaging at days 50 and 90 after rmTBI. Immunohistochemical staining against neurons, astrocytes, microglia, and myelin was performed. Analysis of variance, Pearson correlation coefficient, and simple linear regression model were used.ResultsAt day 50 post-rmTBI, lower cortical FA and q values were shown in the short-interval group (p ≤ 0.038). In contrast, higher FA and q values were shown for the long-interval group (p ≤ 0.039) in the corpus callosum. In the ipsilesional external capsule and internal capsule, no significant changes were found in FA, while lower L and q values were shown in the short-interval group (p ≤ 0.028) at day 90. The q values in the external capsule and internal capsule were negatively correlated with the number of microglial cells and the total number of astroglial cells (p ≤ 0.035).ConclusionTensor scalar measurements, such as L and q values, are sensitive to exacerbated chronic injury induced by rmTBI with shorter inter-injury intervals and reflect long-term astrogliosis induced by the cumulative injury.Relevance statementTensor scalar measurements, including L and q values, are potential DTI metrics for detecting long-term and subtle injury following rmTBI; in particular, q values may be used for quantifying remote white matter (WM) changes following rmTBI.Key PointsThe alteration of L and q values was demonstrated after chronic repetitive mild traumatic brain injury.Changing q values were observed in the impact site and remote WM.The lower q values in the remote WM were associated with astrogliosis.Graphical

Effects of Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury on Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Modulation of Lateral Habenula Excitability and Motivated Behavior.

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is a significant health burden due to mTBI-related chronic debilitating cognitive and psychiatric morbidities. Recent evidence from our laboratory suggests a possible dysregulation within reward/motivational circuit function at the level of a subcortical structure, the lateral habenula (LHb), where we demonstrated a causal role for hyperactive LHb in mTBI-induced motivational deficits in self-care grooming behavior in young adult male mice when exposed to mTBI during late adolescence (at ∼8 weeks old). In this study, we extended this observation by further characterizing neurobehavioral effects of this repetitive closed head injury model of mTBI in both young adult male and female mice on LHb excitability, corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) modulation of LHb activity, and behavioral responses of motivation to self-care behavior and approach versus avoidance behavior in the presence of a social- or threat-related stimulus. We show that mTBI increases LHb spontaneous tonic activity in female mice similar to what we previously observed in male mice, as well as promoting LHb neuronal hyperexcitability and hyperpolarization-induced LHb bursting in both male and female mice. Interestingly, mTBI only increases LHb intrinsic excitability in male mice coincident with higher levels of the hyperpolarization-activated cation currents (HCN/Ih) and reduces levels of the M-type potassium currents while potentiating M-currents without altering intrinsic excitability in LHb neurons of female mice. Because persistent dysregulation of brain CRF systems is suggested to contribute to chronic psychiatric morbidities and that LHb neurons are highly responsive to CRF, we tested whether the LHb CRF subsystem becomes engaged following mTBI. We found that in vitro inhibition of CRF receptor type 1 (CRFR1) within the LHb reverses mTBI-induced enhancement of LHb tonic activity and hyperexcitability in both sexes, suggesting that an augmented intra-LHb CRF-CRFR1-mediated signaling contributes to the overall LHb hyperactivity following mTBI. Behaviorally, mTBI diminishes motivation for self-care grooming in female mice as in male mice. mTBI also alters defensive behaviors in the looming shadow task by shifting the innate defensive behaviors toward more passive action locking rather than escape behaviors in response to an aerial threat in both male and female mice, as well as prolonging the latency to escape responses in female mice. While this model of mTBI reduces social preference in male mice, it induces higher social novelty seeking during the novel social encounters in both male and female mice. Overall, our study provides further translational validity for the use of this pre-clinical model of mTBI for investigation of mTBI-related reward circuit dysfunction and mood/motivation-related behavioral deficits in both sexes while uncovering a few sexually dimorphic neurobehavioral effects of this model that may differentially affect young males and females when exposed to this type of mTBI during late adolescence.

Inhibition of 2-AG hydrolysis alleviates posttraumatic headache attributed to mild traumatic brain injury

BackgroundPosttraumatic headache (PTH) is a common and debilitating symptom following repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (rmTBI), and it mainly resembles a migraine-like phenotype. While modulation of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) is effective in treating TBI and various types of pain including migraine, the role of augmentation of endocannabinoids in treating PTH has not been investigated.MethodsRepetitive mild TBI was induced in male C57BL/6J mice using the non-invasive close-head impact model of engineered rotational acceleration (CHIMERA). Periorbital allodynia was assessed using von Frey filaments and determined by the “Up-Down” method. Immunofluorescence staining was employed to investigate glial cell activation and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) expression in the trigeminal ganglion (TG) and trigeminal nucleus caudalis (TNC) of the rmTBI mice. Levels of 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG), anandamide (AEA), and arachidonic acid (AA) in the TG, medulla (including TNC), and periaqueductal gray (PAG) were measured by mass spectrometry. The therapeutic effect of endocannabinoid modulation on PTH was also assessed.ResultsThe rmTBI mice exhibited significantly increased cephalic pain hypersensitivity compared to the sham controls. MJN110, a potent and selective inhibitor of the 2-AG hydrolytic enzyme monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), dose-dependently attenuated periorbital allodynia in the rmTBI animals. Administration of CGRP at 0.01 mg/kg reinstated periorbital allodynia in the rmTBI animals on days 33 and 45 post-injury but had no effect in the sham and MJN110 treatment groups. Activation of glial cells along with increased production of CGRP in the TG and TNC at 7 and 14 days post-rmTBI were attenuated by MJN110 treatment. The anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects of MJN110 were partially mediated by cannabinoid receptor activation, and the pain-suppressive effect of MJN110 was completely blocked by co-administration of DO34, an inhibitor of 2-AG synthase. The levels of 2-AG in TG, TNC and PAG were decreased in TBI animals, significantly elevated and further reduced by the selective inhibitors of 2-AG hydrolytic and synthetic enzymes, respectively.ConclusionEnhancing endogenous levels of 2-AG appears to be an effective strategy for the treatment of PTH by attenuating pain initiation and transmission in the trigeminal pathway and facilitating descending pain inhibitory modulation.

Profiling the neuroimmune cascade in 3xTg-AD mice exposed to successive mild traumatic brain injuries

Repetitive mild traumatic brain injuries (rmTBI) sustained within a window of vulnerability can result in long term cognitive deficits, depression, and eventual neurodegeneration associated with tau pathology, amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques, gliosis, and neuronal and functional loss. However, a comprehensive study relating acute changes in immune signaling and glial reactivity to neuronal changes and pathological markers after single and repetitive mTBIs is currently lacking. In the current study, we addressed the question of how repeated injuries affect the brain neuroimmune response in the acute phase of injury (< 24 h) by exposing the 3xTg-AD mouse model of tau and Aβ pathology to successive (1x-5x) once-daily weight drop closed-head injuries and quantifying immune markers, pathological markers, and transcriptional profiles at 30 min, 4 h, and 24 h after each injury. We used young adult 2–4 month old 3xTg-AD mice to model the effects of rmTBI in the absence of significant tau and Aβ pathology. We identified pronounced sexual dimorphism in this model, with females eliciting more diverse changes after injury compared to males. Specifically, females showed: (1) a single injury caused a decrease in neuron-enriched genes inversely correlated with inflammatory protein expression and an increase in AD-related genes within 24 h, (2) each injury significantly increased a group of cortical cytokines (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-9, IL-13, IL-17, KC) and MAPK phospho-proteins (phospho-Atf2, phospho-Mek1), several of which co-labeled with neurons and correlated with phospho-tau, and (3) repetitive injury caused increased expression of genes associated with astrocyte reactivity and macrophage-associated immune function. Collectively our data suggest that neurons respond to a single injury within 24 h, while other cell types, including astrocytes, transition to inflammatory phenotypes within days of repetitive injury.

Repetitive mild traumatic brain injury impairs norepinephrine system function and psychostimulant responsivity

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a complex pathophysiological process that results in a variety of neurotransmitter, behavioral, and cognitive deficits. The locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system is a critical regulator of arousal levels and higher executive processes affected by TBI including attention, working memory, and decision making. LC-NE axon injury and impaired signaling within the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is a potential contributor to the neuropsychiatric symptoms after single, moderate to severe TBI. The majority of TBIs are mild, yet long-term cognitive deficits and increased susceptibility for further injury can accumulate after each repetitive mild TBI. As a potential treatment for restoring cognitive function and daytime sleepiness after injury psychostimulants, including methylphenidate (MPH) that increase levels of NE within the PFC, are being prescribed “off-label”. The impact of mild and repetitive mild TBI on the LC-NE system remains limited. Therefore, we determined the extent of LC-NE and arousal dysfunction and response to therapeutic doses of MPH in rats following experimentally induced single and repetitive mild TBI. Microdialysis measures of basal NE efflux from the medial PFC and arousal measures were significantly lower after repetitive mild TBI. Females showed higher baseline PFC-NE efflux than males following single and repetitive mild TBI. In response to MPH challenge, males exhibited a blunted PFC-NE response and persistent arousal levels following repetitive mild TBI. These results provide critical insight into the role of catecholamine system dysfunction associated with cognitive deficits following repeated injury, outcome differences between sex/gender, and lack of success of MPH as an adjunctive therapy to improve cognitive function following injury.

Disrupted Functional Brain Network Architecture in Sufferers with Boxing-Related Repeated Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: A Resting-State EEG Study.

Repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (rmTBI) often occurs in individuals engaged in contact sports, particularly boxing. This study aimed to elucidate the effects of rmTBI on phase-locking value (PLV)-based graph theory and functional network architecture in individuals with boxing-related injuries in five frequency bands by employing resting-state electroencephalography (EEG). Twenty-fore professional boxers and 25 matched healthy controls were recruited to perform a resting-state task, and their noninvasive scalp EEG data were collected simultaneously. Based on the construction of PLV matrices for boxers and controls, phase synchronization and graph-theoretic characteristics were identified in each frequency band. The significance of the calculated functional brain networks between the two populations was analyzed using a network-based statistical (NBS) approach. Compared to controls, boxers exhibited an increasing trend in PLV synchronization and notable differences in the distribution of functional centers, especially in the gamma frequency band. Additionally, attenuated nodal network parameters and decreased small-world measures were observed in the theta, beta, and gamma bands, suggesting that the functional network efficiency and small-world characteristics were significantly weakened in boxers. NBS analysis revealed that boxers exhibited a significant increase in network connectivity strength compared to controls in the theta, beta, and gamma frequency bands. The functional connectivity of the significance subnetworks exhibited an asymmetric distribution between the bilateral hemispheres, indicating that the optimized organization of information integration and segregation for the resting-state networks was imbalanced and disarranged for boxers. This is the first study to investigate the underlying deficits in PLV-based graph-theoretic characteristics and NBS-based functional networks in patients with rmTBI from the perspective of whole-brain resting-state EEG. Joint analyses of distinctive graph-theoretic representations and asymmetrically hyperconnected subnetworks in specific frequency bands may serve as an effective method to assess the underlying deficiencies in resting-state network processing in patients with sports-related rmTBI.

Time-Dependent Long-Term Effect of Memantine following Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury.

Repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (rmTBI, e.g., sports concussions) may be associated with both acute and chronic symptoms and neurological changes. Despite the common occurrence of these injuries, therapeutic strategies are limited. One potentially promising approach is N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) blockade to alleviate the effects of post-injury glutamatergic excitotoxicity. Initial pre-clinical work using the NMDAR antagonist, memantine, suggests that immediate treatment following rmTBI improves a variety of acute outcomes. It remains unclear (1) whether acute memantine treatment has long-term benefits and (2) whether delayed treatment following rmTBI is beneficial, which are both clinically relevant concerns. To test this, animals were subjected to rmTBI via a weight drop model with rotational acceleration (five hits in 5 days) and randomized to memantine treatment immediately, 3 months, or 6 months post-injury, with a treatment duration of one month. Behavioral outcomes were assessed at 1, 4, and 7 months post-injury. Neuropathological outcomes were characterized at 7 months post-injury. We observed chronic changes in behavior (anxiety-like behavior, motor coordination, spatial learning, and memory), as well as neuroinflammation (microglia, astrocytes) and tau phosphorylation (T231). Memantine treatment, either immediately or 6 months post-injury, appears to confer greater rescue of neuroinflammatory changes (microglia) than vehicle or treatment at the 3-month time point. Although memantine is already being prescribed chronically to address persistent symptoms associated with rmTBI, this study represents the first evidence of which we are aware to suggest a small but durable effect of memantine treatment in mild, concussive injuries. This effect suggests that memantine, although potentially beneficial, is insufficient to treat all aspects of rmTBI alone and should be combined with other therapeutic agents in a multi-therapy approach, with attention given to the timing of treatment.

Overexpression of pathogenic tau in astrocytes causes a reduction in AQP4 and GLT1, an immunosuppressed phenotype and unique transcriptional responses to repetitive mild TBI without appreciable changes in tauopathy

Epidemiological studies have unveiled a robust link between exposure to repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (r-mTBI) and elevated susceptibility to develop neurodegenerative disorders, notably chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). The pathogenic lesion in CTE cases is characterized by the accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau in neurons around small cerebral blood vessels which can be accompanied by astrocytes that contain phosphorylated tau, the latter termed tau astrogliopathy. However, the contribution of tau astrogliopathy to the pathobiology and functional consequences of r-mTBI/CTE or whether it is merely a consequence of aging remains unclear. We addressed these pivotal questions by utilizing a mouse model harboring tau-bearing astrocytes, GFAPP301L mice, subjected to our r-mTBI paradigm. Despite the fact that r-mTBI did not exacerbate tau astrogliopathy or general tauopathy, it increased phosphorylated tau in the area underneath the impact site. Additionally, gene ontology analysis of tau-bearing astrocytes following r-mTBI revealed profound alterations in key biological processes including immunological and mitochondrial bioenergetics. Moreover, gene array analysis of microdissected astrocytes accrued from stage IV CTE human brains revealed an immunosuppressed astroglial phenotype similar to tau-bearing astrocytes in the GFAPP301L model. Additionally, hippocampal reduction of proteins involved in water transport (AQP4) and glutamate homeostasis (GLT1) was found in the mouse model of tau astrogliopathy. Collectively, these findings reveal the importance of understanding tau astrogliopathy and its role in astroglial pathobiology under normal circumstances and following r-mTBI. The identified mechanisms using this GFAPP301L model may suggest targets for therapeutic interventions in r-mTBI pathogenesis in the context of CTE.

Pegylated polymeric micelles of boswellic acid-selenium mitigates repetitive mild traumatic brain injury: Regulation of miR-155 and miR-146a/BDNF/ Klotho/Foxo3a cue

This study aims to explore the protective machinery of pegylated polymeric micelles of boswellic acid-selenium (PMBS) against secondary neuronal damage triggered by mild repetitive traumatic brain injury (RTBI). After PMBS characterization in terms of particle size, size distribution, zeta potential, and transmission electronic microscopy, the selected formula was used to investigate its potency against experimental RTBI. Five groups of rats were used; group 1 (control) and the other four groups were subjected to RTBI. Groups 2 was RTBI positive control, while 3, 4, and 5 received boswellic acid (BSA), selenium (SEL), and PMBS, respectively. The open-field behavioral test was used for behavioral assessment. Subsequently, brain tissues were utilized for hematoxylin and eosin staining, Nissl staining, Western blotting, and ELISA in addition to evaluating microRNA expression (miR-155 and miR-146a). The behavioral changes, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation triggered by RTBI were all improved by PMBS. Moreover, PMBS mitigated excessive glutamate-induced excitotoxicity and the dysregulation in miR-155 and miR-146a expression. Besides, connexin43 (Cx43) expression as well as klotho and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were upregulated with diminished neuronal cell death and apoptosis because of reduced Forkhead Box class O3a(Foxo3a) expression in the PMBS-treated group. The current study has provided evidence of the benefits produced by incorporating BSA and SEL in PEGylated polymeric micelles formula. PMBS is a promising therapy for RTBI. Its beneficial effects are attributed to the manipulation of many pathways, including the regulation of miR-155 and miR-146a expression, as well as the BDNF /Klotho/Foxo3a signaling pathway.

Small Molecule Drug C381 Attenuates Brain Vascular Damage Following Repetitive Mild Traumatic Injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains a significant public health concern, with no effective therapeutic interventions to ameliorate the enduring consequences. The prevailing understanding of TBI pathophysiology indicates a central role for vascular dysfunction. Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is a multifunctional cytokine crucial for vascular development. Aberrant TGF-β signaling is implicated in vascular pathologies associated with various neurological conditions. We recently developed a novel small molecule drug, C381, a TGF-β activator with the ability to restore lysosomal function. Here we used a mouse model of repetitive mild TBI (mTBI) to examine whether C381 would attenuate vascular injury. We first employed RNA-seq analysis to investigate the gene expression patterns associated with mTBI and evaluated the therapeutic potential of C381 in mitigating these changes. Our results demonstrate distinct mTBI-related gene expression signatures, prominently implicating pathways related to vascular integrity and endothelial function. Notably, treatment with C381 reversed these mTBI-induced gene expression changes. Immunohistochemical analysis further corroborated these findings, revealing that C381 treatment attenuated vascular damage in mTBI-affected brain tissue. These findings strongly support the potential clinical usefulness of C381 as a novel therapeutic intervention for mTBI.

Shaking Up Our Approach: The Need for Characterization and Optimization of Pre-clinical Models of Infant Abusive Head Trauma.

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are a large societal and individual burden. In the first year of life, the vast majority of these injuries are the result of inflicted abusive events by a trusted caregiver. Abusive head trauma (AHT) in infants, formerly known as shaken baby syndrome, is the leading cause of inflicted mortality and morbidity in this population. In this review we address clinical diagnosis, symptoms, prognosis, and neuropathology of AHT, emphasizing the burden of repetitive AHT. Next, we consider existing animal models of AHT, and we evaluate key features of an ideal model, highlighting important developmental milestones in children most vulnerable to AHT. We draw on insights from other injury models, such as repetitive, mild TBIs (RmTBIs), post-traumatic epilepsy (PTE), hypoxic-ischemic injuries, and maternal neglect, to speculate on key knowledge gaps and underline important new opportunities in pre-clinical AHT research. Finally, potential treatment options to facilitate healthy development in children following an AHT are considered. Together, this review aims to drive the field toward optimized, well-characterized animal models of AHT, which will allow for greater insight into the underlying neuropathological and neurobehavioral consequences of AHT.

Interactions Between Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Methylphenidate Administration on Catecholamine Transporter Protein Levels Within the Rodent Prefrontal Cortex (P3-14.016)

Interactions Between Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Methylphenidate Administration on Catecholamine Transporter Protein Levels Within the Rodent Prefrontal Cortex (P3-14.016)

Association between mammillary body atrophy and memory impairment in retired athletes with a history of repetitive mild traumatic brain injury

Cognitive dysfunction, especially memory impairment, is a typical clinical feature of long-term symptoms caused by repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (rmTBI). The current study aims to investigate the relationship between regional brain atrophy and cognitive impairments in retired athletes with a long history of rmTBI. Overall, 27 retired athletes with a history of rmTBI (18 boxers, 3 kickboxers, 2 wrestlers, and 4 others; rmTBI group) and 23 age/sex-matched healthy participants (control group) were enrolled. MPRAGE on 3 T MRI was acquired and segmented. The TBV and TBV–adjusted regional brain volumes were compared between groups, and the relationship between the neuropsychological test scores and the regional brain volumes were evaluated. Total brain volume (TBV) and regional brain volumes of the mammillary bodies (MBs), hippocampi, amygdalae, thalami, caudate nuclei, and corpus callosum (CC) were estimated using the SPM12 and ITK–SNAP tools. In the rmTBI group, the regional brain volume/TBV ratio (rmTBI vs. control group, Mann–Whitney U test, p < 0.05) underwent partial correlation analysis, adjusting for age and sex, to assess its connection with neuropsychological test results. Compared with the control group, the rmTBI group showed significantly lower the MBs volume/TBV ratio (0.13 ± 0.05 vs. 0.19 ± 0.03 × 10−3, p < 0.001). The MBs volume/TBV ratio correlated with visual memory, as assessed, respectively, by the Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure test delayed recall (ρ = 0.62, p < 0.001). In conclusion, retired athletes with rmTBI have MB atrophy, potentially contributing to memory impairment linked to the Papez circuit disconnection.

Long-Term Impact of Diffuse Traumatic Brain Injury on Neuroinflammation and Catecholaminergic Signaling: Potential Relevance for Parkinson's Disease Risk.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is associated with an increased risk of developing Parkinson's disease (PD), though the exact mechanisms remain unclear. TBI triggers acute neuroinflammation and catecholamine dysfunction post-injury, both implicated in PD pathophysiology. The long-term impact on these pathways following TBI, however, remains uncertain. In this study, male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent sham surgery or Marmarou's impact acceleration model to induce varying TBI severities: single mild TBI (mTBI), repetitive mild TBI (rmTBI), or moderate-severe TBI (msTBI). At 12 months post-injury, astrocyte reactivity (GFAP) and microglial levels (IBA1) were assessed in the striatum (STR), substantia nigra (SN), and prefrontal cortex (PFC) using immunohistochemistry. Key enzymes and receptors involved in catecholaminergic transmission were measured via Western blot within the same regions. Minimal changes in these markers were observed, regardless of initial injury severity. Following mTBI, elevated protein levels of dopamine D1 receptors (DRD1) were noted in the PFC, while msTBI resulted in increased alpha-2A adrenoceptors (ADRA2A) in the STR and decreased dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DβH) in the SN. Neuroinflammatory changes were subtle, with a reduced number of GFAP+ cells in the SN following msTBI. However, considering the potential for neurodegenerative outcomes to manifest decades after injury, longer post-injury intervals may be necessary to observe PD-relevant alterations within these systems.

Transcending Traditional Treatment: The Therapeutical Potential of Nanovesicles for Transdermal Baclofen Delivery in Repeated Traumatic Brain Injury.

The repositioning of previously approved drugs is occupying the researchers' plans. Baclofen (Bac) was our candidate for its established neuroprotective capacity, with a proposal of efficient drug delivery as non-ionic surfactant-based nanovesicles (NISNV) formulae against mild repetitive traumatic brain injury (mRTBI) in rats, thus reducing the number of orally or injected medications, especially in severely comatose patients or pediatrics. A (23) factorial design was implemented for confining Bac-loaded NISNV formulae, where a bunch of variables were inspected. An in-vivo experiment was done to test the prepared formula's efficacy transdermally. The following parameters were measured: brain expression of gamma amino butyric acid B (GABAB), protein kinase C- α (PKC-α), focal adhesion kinase (FAK), TNF-α and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65, malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and histopathology. The particle size (PS) and entrapment efficiency percent (EE%) speckled from 60.40±0.28% to 88.02±0.01% for the former and 174.64±0.93 to 1174.50±3.54 nm for the latter. In vitro release% after 8 hours ranged from 63.25±5.47% to 84.79±3.75%. The optimized formula (F4) illustrated desirability=1, with 630.09±3.53 µg/cm2 of Bac permeated over 8 hours, which equates to 100% of Bac. Bac post-trauma treatment restored brain expression of GABAB and PKC-α, while decreasing FAK. Besides enhancing the histological findings, the anti-inflammatory effect was clear by decreasing TNF-α and NF-κB p65. Consequently, significant antioxidant sequelae were revealed herein by diminishing MDA levels and restoring SOD activity. Transdermal delivery of Bac-loaded niosomes confirmed neuroprotection and succeeded in surpassing skin-to-brain barriers, which makes it a promising therapeutic option for repeated traumas.

The cellular senescence response and neuroinflammation in juvenile mice following controlled cortical impact and repetitive mild traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of disability and increases the risk of developing neurodegenerative diseases. The mechanisms linking TBI to neurodegeneration remain to be defined. It has been proposed that the induction of cellular senescence after injury could amplify neuroinflammation and induce long-term tissue changes. The induction of a senescence response post-injury in the immature brain has yet to be characterised. We carried out two types of brain injury in juvenile CD1 mice: invasive TBI using controlled cortical impact (CCI) and repetitive mild TBI (rmTBI) using weight drop injury. The analysis of senescence-related signals showed an increase in γH2AX-53BP1 nuclear foci, p53, p19ARF, and p16INK4a expression in the CCI group, 5 days post-injury (dpi). At 35 days, the difference was no longer statistically significant. Gene expression showed the activation of different senescence pathways in the ipsilateral and contralateral hemispheres in the injured mice. CCI-injured mice showed a neuroinflammatory early phase after injury (increased Iba1 and GFAP expression), which persisted for GFAP. After CCI, there was an increase at 5 days in p16INK4, whereas in rmTBI, a significant increase was seen at 35 dpi. Both injuries caused a decrease in p21 at 35 dpi. In rmTBI, other markers showed no significant change. The PCR array data predicted the activation of pathways connected to senescence after rmTBI. These results indicate the induction of a complex cellular senescence and glial reaction in the immature mouse brain, with clear differences between an invasive brain injury and a repetitive mild injury.