Renewable Replacement Research Articles

Influence of fatty acid composition on contact angle and wear rate of Jatropha curcas and sunflower’s mixture by varying compositions mixture

United Nation Sustainable Development Goals make sustainability become common goals which drives into investments of innovative product and technology focusing on sustainability. Cutting oils are generally made from mineral oil and the renewable replacement is sought after and one of them are Jatropha curcas and sunflower oil or blend of them. Viscosity and adsorption will influence the properties of cutting oil. The study concern on the relationship between percentage of JCO in the mixture to anti-wear properties and contact angle measured using goniometer contact angle and pin-on-disk tribometer by varying percentage of Jatropha curcas oil in mixtures for 2.5 %, 5 %, 10 %, 20 %, and 30 %. Also, molecular simulation is conducted through molecular dynamic in search of dipole moment, electrostatic potential, polarizability and bond energy. The approach is employed to connect molecular interaction and non-linearity trending of experiment. The experiment shows contact angle and wear scar width and also wear rate become higher when percentage of Jatropha curcas oil is higher. The lowest contact angle is 26.9 deg. and the highest is 36.9 deg. of 2.5 % and 30 % Jatropha oil. The highest wear rate is 6.77e-7 and the lowest is 2.74e-7 of 2.5 % and 30 % Jatropha oil. The simulation gives supporting basis in the finding of experiment in which the viscosity is more prominent in governing wear rate than adsorption. Increases of Jatropha curcas percentages have inversely proportional to dipole moment, polarizability, electrostatic potential and bonding which explain why the fatty acids become more adhere to the fatty acid than to surface. The finding is restricted only for idealized conditions both of molecular structure and surface.

Random renewable replacements to manage product reliability through a random renewable repair warranty

Random renewable replacements to manage product reliability through a random renewable repair warranty

Isolation and characterization of a Halomonas species for non-axenic growth-associated production of bio-polyesters from sustainable feedstocks.

The urgent need for renewable replacements for synthetic materials may be addressed through microbial biotechnology. To simplify the large-scale implementation of such bio-processes, robust cell factories that can utilize sustainable and widely available feedstocks are pivotal. To this end, non-axenic growth-associated production could reduce operational costs and enhance biomass productivity, thereby improving commercial competitiveness. Another major cost factor is downstream processing, especially in the case of intracellular products, such as bio-polyesters. Simplified cell-lysis strategies could also further improve economic viability.

The catabolism of lignin-derived p-methoxylated aromatic compounds by Rhodococcus jostii RHA1.

Emergent strategies to valorize lignin, an abundant but underutilized aromatic biopolymer, include tandem processes that integrate chemical depolymerization and biological catalysis. To date, aromatic monomers from C-O bond cleavage of lignin have been converted to bioproducts, but the presence of recalcitrant C-C bonds in lignin limits the product yield. A promising chemocatalytic strategy that overcomes this limitation involves phenol methyl protection and autoxidation. Incorporating this into a tandem process requires microbial cell factories able to transform the p-methoxylated products in the resulting methylated lignin stream. In this study, we assessed the ability of Rhodococcus jostii RHA1 to catabolize the major aromatic products in a methylated lignin stream and elucidated the pathways responsible for this catabolism. RHA1 grew on a methylated pine lignin stream, catabolizing the major aromatic monomers: p-methoxybenzoate (p-MBA), veratrate, and veratraldehyde. Bioinformatic analyses suggested that a cytochrome P450, PbdA, and its cognate reductase, PbdB, are involved in p-MBA catabolism. Gene deletion studies established that both pbdA and pbdB are essential for growth on p-MBA and several derivatives. Furthermore, a deletion mutant of a candidate p-hydroxybenzoate (p-HBA) hydroxylase, ΔpobA, did not grow on p-HBA. Veratraldehyde and veratrate catabolism required both vanillin dehydrogenase (Vdh) and vanillate O-demethylase (VanAB), revealing previously unknown roles of these enzymes. Finally, a ΔpcaL strain grew on neither p-MBA nor veratrate, indicating they are catabolized through the β-ketoadipate pathway. This study expands our understanding of the bacterial catabolism of aromatic compounds and facilitates the development of biocatalysts for lignin valorization.IMPORTANCELignin, an abundant aromatic polymer found in plant biomass, is a promising renewable replacement for fossil fuels as a feedstock for the chemical industry. Strategies for upgrading lignin include processes that couple the catalytic fractionation of biomass and biocatalytic transformation of the resulting aromatic compounds with a microbial cell factory. Engineering microbial cell factories for this biocatalysis requires characterization of bacterial pathways involved in catabolizing lignin-derived aromatic compounds. This study identifies new pathways for lignin-derived aromatic degradation in Rhodococcus, a genus of bacteria well suited for biocatalysis. Additionally, we describe previously unknown activities of characterized enzymes on lignin-derived compounds, expanding their utility. This work advances the development of strategies to replace fossil fuel-based feedstocks with sustainable alternatives.

Isolation and characterization of soda lignin from OPEFB and evaluation of its performance as wood adhesive

The purpose of this study was to explore the mechanical properties of plywood panels that had been bound with lignin-phenol–formaldehyde (LPF) adhesive. LPF, composed of lignin that was extracted from Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (OPEFB) fiber by soda pulping method and characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (HNMR), and Thermal Gravimetric Analyzer (TGA) analysis. Then, various compositions of soda lignin (10–50 wt%) were used as a phenol substitute in LPF synthesis. The characteristics of the synthesizedadhesive were compared to the properties of phenol formaldehyde (PF) adhesive. Plywood was fabricated with LPF and its mechanical properties were studied and evaluated using industrial standards. The result indicates that the increase of phenol substitution with soda lignin, up to 40%, improves the mechanical properties of plywood. This research demonstrated the use of lignin as a renewable replacement of phenol in PF adhesive formulation.

Nature-Derived Epoxy Resin Monomers with Reduced Sensitizing Capacity─Isosorbide-Based Bis-Epoxides.

Epoxy resin systems (ERSs) are a class of thermosetting resins that become thermostable and insoluble polymers upon curing. They are widely used as components of protective surfaces, adhesives, and paints and in the manufacturing of composites in the plastics industry. The diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) is used in 75-90% of ERSs and is thus by far the most used epoxy resin monomer (ERM). Unfortunately, DGEBA is a strong skin sensitizer and it is one of the most common causes of occupational contact dermatitis. Furthermore, DGEBA is synthesized from bisphenol A (BPA), which is a petroleum-derived chemical with endocrine-disruptive properties. In this work, we have used isosorbide, a renewable and nontoxic sugar-based material, as an alternative to BPA in the design of ERMs. Three different bis-epoxide isosorbide derivatives were synthesized: the diglycidyl ether of isosorbide (1) and two novel isosorbide-based bis-epoxides containing either a benzoic ester (2) or a benzyl ether linkage (3). Assessment of the in vivo sensitizing potency of the isosorbide bis-epoxides in the murine local lymph node assay (LLNA) showed that all three compounds were significantly less sensitizing than DGEBA, especially 2 which was nonsensitizing up to 25% w/v. The peptide reactivity showed the same order of reactivity as the LLNA, i.e., 2 being the least reactive, followed by 3 and then 1, which displayed similar peptide reactivity as DGEBA. Skin permeation of 2 and 3 was compared to DGEBA using ex vivo pig skin and static Franz cells. The preliminary investigations of the technical properties of the polymers formed from 1-3 were promising. Although further investigations of the technical properties are needed, all isosorbide bis-epoxides have the potential to be less sensitizing renewable replacements of DGEBA, especially 2 that had the lowest sensitizing potency in vivo as well as the lowest peptide reactivity.

AN OVERVIEW ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ACTIVATED CARBON FROM AGRICULTURAL WASTE MATERIALS

Agriculture waste-derived activated carbon has become a viable and renewable replacement for traditional activated carbon sources. This study examines the development, characteristics, and prospective uses of activated carbon derived from various agricultural waste products, such as crop residues, food scraps, and other biomass by-products. The use of these agricultural waste products shows a sizable potential for the synthesis of activated carbon and the impact of various activation procedures, including physical and chemical activation methods, on the structural and surface characteristics of the resulting activated carbons is discussed. Additionally, the composition, structure, and characteristics of activated carbon are evaluated with important variables, including activating agents, temperature, and impregnation ratio. Using agricultural waste helps to generate ecologically acceptable and sustainable materials while addressing important waste management issues.

Energy and exergy analysis of hydrogen production on co-gasification of municipal solid waste and coal

Hydrogen energy is considered as one of the cleanest sources of energy due to its high efficiency. The only combustion product of hydrogen is water. Gasification can be used for the conversion of wastes into other fuels, and it presents an engaging renewable replacement for fossil fuels. This study aims to produce hydrogen as a result of co-gasification of MSW with coal to generate energy during its disposal. The importance of the system has been emphasized by making energy and exergy analyses. Gasification performance and the importance of hydrogen production of municipal solid blended with coal at different ratios (10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, and 90%) were also determined. A numerical model was developed for the co-gasification system. This study implies that gasification can be used for the evaluation of coal with disposal of MSW and conversion of these wastes into energy, without harming the environment.

A review on catalytic conversion of biodiesel derivative glycerol to bio-olefins

Biodiesel and glycerol are acquired from animal fat or vegetable oil through transesterification reactionas in presence of a heterogeneous catalyst. Glycerol (10 wt%) is a by-product of total biodiesel production. Glycerol produced in a large amount can pose an environmental issue because it cannot be disposed of in the environment. Catalyst used for the conversion of glycerol into bio-olefins. This review has studied different catalysts ZSM-5, CuZSM-5, HZSM-5, Y-zeolite, USY, HMOR, and γ-Al2O3 to obtain bio-olefins from glycerol. A suitable substitute that can be transformed into useful bio-olefins using the new ecologicallatest technology is glycerol, which is a renewable replacement. The catalyst (HZSM-5) was found to be most effective, with conversions of glycerol approximately 80.23 % and selectivity of bio-olefin at 59.51 % without carbon deposition. Bio-olefins are used as building blocks in the manufacturing of plastics in the chemical industry for example fuel, synthetic fibre, packaging, construction,solvent, coating. We require incredible opportunities to use these renewable resources, which will consequently be good for business, the environment, and the economy.

Technoeconomic evaluation of recent process improvements in production of sugar and high-value lignin co-products via two-stage Cu-catalyzed alkaline-oxidative pretreatment

BackgroundA lignocellulose-to-biofuel biorefinery process that enables multiple product streams is recognized as a promising strategy to improve the economics of this biorefinery and to accelerate technology commercialization. We recently identified an innovative pretreatment technology that enables of the production of sugars at high yields while simultaneously generating a high-quality lignin stream that has been demonstrated as both a promising renewable polyol replacement for polyurethane applications and is highly susceptible to depolymerization into monomers. This technology comprises a two-stage pretreatment approach that includes an alkaline pre-extraction followed by a metal-catalyzed alkaline-oxidative pretreatment. Our recent work demonstrated that H2O2 and O2 act synergistically as co-oxidants during the alkaline-oxidative pretreatment and could significantly reduce the pretreatment chemical input while maintaining high sugar yields (~ 95% glucose and ~ 100% xylose of initial sugar composition), high lignin yields (~ 75% of initial lignin), and improvements in lignin usage.ResultsThis study considers the economic impact of these advances and provides strategies that could lead to additional economic improvements for future commercialization. The results of the technoeconomic analysis (TEA) demonstrated that adding O2 as a co-oxidant at 50 psig for the alkaline-oxidative pretreatment and reducing the raw material input reduced the minimum fuel selling price from $1.08/L to $0.85/L, assuming recoverable lignin is used as a polyol replacement. If additional lignin can be recovered and sold as more valuable monomers, the minimum fuel selling price (MFSP) can be further reduced to $0.73/L.ConclusionsThe present work demonstrated that high sugar and lignin yields combined with low raw material inputs and increasing the value of lignin could greatly increase the economic viability of a poplar-based biorefinery. Continued research on integrating sugar production with lignin valorization is thus warranted to confirm this economic potential as the technology matures.

Predictive Regression Models for the Compressive Strength of Fly Ash-based Alkali-Activated Cementitious Materials via Machine Learning

Fly ash powders produced from pulverized carbon are a promising renewable and sustainable replacement for Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) in concrete. However, quantifying the desired compressive strength threshold requires defining the ratio of Fly Ash (FA) to fine aggregates (S). This study presents two novel machine learning models to predict the mechanical properties of FA-based Alkali-Activated Cementitious Materials (AACMs) using supervised regressors. The two models, SLR and MGSVM, showed high prediction accuracy (~95%) based on raw compressive strength training datasets from AACMs with mixed proportions of FA/S (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30%) for 28 days of curing. Maximum compressive strength of ~67.5MP was observed at approximately 20% FA/S (spline interpolation), suggesting the attainment of high mechanical stability. Having more than 30% FA/S indicates a high probability of recovering the original strength of 61MPa for pristine AACMs. The non-linear stress or strain patterns against FA/S confirmed the applicability of stress-strain relationships and elasticity laws. The pozzolanic properties of FA facilitate interaction with Ca(OH)2 for aggregation linked to the non-linear behavior. This study provides generalized design models for correlating the mix proportions in OPC-substituted AACMs to the optimum compressive strength.

Experimental Investigation and Comparison of a Decalin/Butylcyclohexane Based Naphthenic Bio-Blendstock Surrogate Fuel in a Compression Ignition Engine

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Many efforts have been made in recent years to find renewable replacements for fossil fuels that can reduce the carbon footprint without compromising combustion performance. Bio-blendstock oil developed from woody biomass using a reliable thermochemical conversion method known as catalytic fast pyrolysis (CFP), along with hydrotreating upgrading has the potential to deliver on this renewable promise. To further our understanding of naphthenic-rich bio-blendstock oils, an improved formulation surrogate fuel (SF), SF1.01, featuring decalin and butylcyclohexane naphthenic content was devised and blended with research-grade No.2 diesel (DF2) at various volume percentages. The blends were experimentally evaluated in a single-cylinder Ricardo Hydra compression ignition engine to quantify engine and emissions performance of SF1.01/DF2 blends. Injection timing events were varied from knock limit to misfire limit at the same operating conditions for all blends. A decrease in the engine power output was observed as the SF content was increased due to lower combustion efficiency, yielding slightly higher <i>CO</i> and <i>THC</i> emissions. Higher SF content also correlated with a significant decrease in the PM emissions. <i>NOx</i> emissions were minimal as they fell below detectable limits. A comparison is also presented between DF2 and previously published SF1/DF2 blends that featured only decalin as the naphthenic content. It was found that butylcyclohexane is more desirable from a combustion performance and emissions characteristic than decalin for the composition of the naphthenic content. A bio-blendstock oil of similar composition to the evaluated SF would be a good candidate for displacing fossil-derived heavy petroleum distillate fuels in engine applications.</div></div>

Waste-to-energy: biobutanol production from cellulosic residue of sweet potato by Clostridia acetobutylicum

Biobutanol has been emerging as a renewable replacement to overcome fossil fuel limit due to its attractive qualities. The waste resources utilization is an economically feasible and eco-friendly way to produce biobutanol. In this work, the potential of butanol fermentation with sweet potato residue (SPR) obtained from ethanol fermentation was evaluated. To assist sugar release for butanol production by Clostridia acetobutylicum, a pretreatment approach with dilute sulfuric acid was established via response surface methodology. The maximum butanol concentration of 3.77 g/L was obtained at the optimal conditions of pretreatment at 1% (v/v) dilute sulfuric acid, and 115℃ for 30 min. Detoxifying the hydrolysate with XAD-4 resin significantly enhanced butanol fermentation performance, while adding nutritional supplements had no significant influence. The stability of the fermentation process was verified by the 2 L-scale of fermentation, resulting in 7.96 g/L of butanol, 13.42 g/L h of Acetone-Butanol-Ethanol (ABE), and 0.34 g/g of ABE yield, respectively. This study demonstrates a bio-refinery strategy of conversion from waste biomass to energy, confirms the feasibility of utilizing the cost saving SPR as feedstock to produce butanol through fermentation, and provides a novel approach for minimization of environmental pollution.

Association of gene expression with syringyl to guaiacyl ratio in sugarcane lignin.

A transcriptome analysis reveals the transcripts and alleles differentially expressed in sugarcane genotypes with contrasting lignin composition. Sugarcane bagasse is a highly abundant resource that may be used as a feedstock for the production of biofuels and bioproducts in order to meet increasing demands for renewable replacements for fossil carbon. However, lignin imparts rigidity to the cell wall that impedes the efficient breakdown of the biomass into fermentable sugars. Altering the ratio of the lignin units, syringyl (S) and guaiacyl (G), which comprise the native lignin polymer in sugarcane, may facilitate the processing of bagasse. This study aimed to identify genes and markers associated with S/G ratio in order to accelerate the development of sugarcane bioenergy varieties with modified lignin composition. The transcriptome sequences of 12 sugarcane genotypes that contrasted for S/G ratio were compared and there were 2019 transcripts identified as differentially expressed (DE) between the high and low S/G ratio groups. These included transcripts encoding possible monolignol biosynthetic pathway enzymes, transporters, dirigent proteins and transcriptional and post-translational regulators. Furthermore, the frequencies of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were compared between the low and high S/G ratio groups to identify specific alleles expressed with the phenotype. There were 2063 SNP loci across 787 unique transcripts that showed group-specific expression. Overall, the DE transcripts and SNP alleles identified in this study may be valuable for breeding sugarcane varieties with altered S/G ratio that may provide desirable bioenergy traits.

Sustainable nitrogen-containing chemicals and materials from natural marine resources chitin and microalgae

• Various valorization of marine biomass is reviewed. • Different sources of marine biomass have various applications. • Marine biomass is desired for functional materials and chemicals. Chitin and microalgae, naturally occurring nitrogen-rich marine resources, have vast applications in chemical production and material synthesis. Being undervalued and underutilized for a long time, marine biomass biorefinery has attracted considerable attention to realize its economic value in the last few years to meet the sustainable development requirements. This review first analyzes the chemical constituent of chitin and microalgae to understand their basic chemical properties. Next, various transformation pathways to value-added nitrogenous chemicals are summarized, and the biologically fixed nitrogen in marine biomass can be fully utilized with the reduced amount of energy-intensive synthetic NH 3 . Additionally, the biomass can also be used as precursors to synthesize functional N- doped carbon materials, which are potential candidates in catalysts, energy storage, and biomedical field. This review can provide insights into the fundamental understanding on the intrinsic nature and appropriate transformation options for N-rich marine biomass as renewable replacement of non-sustainable petroleum resources, and also disclose the nitrogen utilization from biomass for wider and more sustainable applications to enrich the chemicals production process.

Autoignition of diethyl ether and a diethyl ether/ethanol blend

Binary blends of fast-reacting diethyl ether (DEE) and slow-reacting ethanol (EtOH) are quite promising as renewable replacements for conventional fuels in modern compression ignition engines. In this work, pure diethyl ether and a 50/50 M binary blend of diethyl ether and ethanol (DEE/EtOH) were investigated in a shock tube and a rapid compression machine. Ignition delay times were measured over the temperature range of 550–1000 K, pressures of 20–40 bar, and equivalence ratios of 0.5–1. Literature reaction mechanisms of diethyl ether and ethanol were combined to simulate the reactivity trends of the blends. Species rate-of-production and sensitivity analyses were performed to analyze the interplay between radicals originating from the two fuels. Multistage ignition behavior was observed in both experiments and simulations, with peculiar 3-stage ignition visible at fuel-lean conditions. Kinetic analyses were used to identify the reactions controlling various stages of ignition. Reactivity comparison of DEE/EtOH and dimethyl ether/ethanol (DME/EtOH) blends showed that the oxidation of DEE blends is controlled by acetaldehyde whereas formaldehyde controls the oxidation of DME blends.

Comparative Study on CI Engine Performance and Emissions using a Novel Antioxidant Additive

The depletion of conventional energy sources and environmental pollution related to use of these energy sources make biodiesel as a renewable replacement to diesel. The biodiesel can be used as an immediate replacement to fossil diesel as its properties are comparable to diesel. The main drawback of the biodiesel is its lower oxidation stability and prone to microbial growth which degrades the properties of biodiesel during storage. However, these problems can be overcome by adding suitable additives to the biodiesel. The non-edible neem oil is one of the feedstocks used for biodiesel in India. The neem biodiesel has lower oxidation stability and hence it is necessary to add suitable additive. The eucalyptus oil has better antioxidant and microbial inhibition properties and hence it was used as an additive in this work. The effect of adding this additive on the biodiesel properties, engine emissions and performance were studied. The engine tests were conducted on a compression ignition engine at different loads with various concentration of eucalyptus oil. The engine performance indicates that the thermal efficiency of the engine with biodiesel is lower than the diesel fuel while the engine exhaust emissions like HC, CO and smoke were lower with the biodiesel. The use of eucalyptus oil as an additive to the biodiesel at full load increases the engine thermal efficiency by 3.08%. Also, it lowers the engine exhaust emissions except NOx emission.

Laminar premixed and non-premixed flame investigation on the influence of dimethyl ether addition on n-heptane combustion

Several different ether components have been proposed as renewable replacements for diesel fuel in compression ignition engines. From a fundamental point of view, blends of n-heptane and dimethyl ether (DME) have been considered in this study, where n-heptane is a single-component diesel surrogate and DME acts as a representative for oxymethylene ethers. n-Heptane and n-heptane / DME blends have been investigated experimentally under laminar premixed low-pressure and non-premixed atmospheric-pressure counterflow flame conditions. For the premixed case, a series of three fuel-rich flames was studied with oxygen as the oxidizer, at a constant C/O ratio of 0.47, pressure of 4 kPa, with 50% argon dilution, and an equivalence ratio ϕ near 1.5, burning pure n-heptane and mixtures of n-heptane with DME in the ratios 1:1 and 1:4. In the non-premixed counterflow configuration, two fuel/oxygen/argon flames were studied with pure n-heptane and a 1:1 DME–n-heptane mixture as the fuel. Electron ionization molecular-beam mass spectrometry was used for both flame configurations to investigate the flame structure and determine quantitative mole fraction profiles of stable and reactive species formed in the combustion process. Particular attention was given to the changes caused by partial replacement of n-heptane by DME.Notwithstanding the experimental focus of this work, the experimental results were compared with predictions from a model suitable for both n-heptane and DME that was combined for this case from recent mechanisms available in the literature for these fuels. While the overall flame structure was not significantly altered upon DME addition, with some smaller differences mainly due to temperature effects, more prominent changes and interactive effects were found for a number of primary decomposition products, oxygenated species, and higher-molecular hydrocarbon compounds. In most cases, experimentally observed trends, but not always quantitative changes, could be satisfactorily reproduced and explained by the model.

Biochemical Compositional Analysis and Kinetic Modeling of Hydrothermal Carbonization of Australian Saltbush

Hydrothermal Carbonization (HTC) is the thermochemical conversion of biomass in subcritical water to form an energy-enriched “hydrochar” as a renewable replacement for coal. Lignocellulosic biomass...

Characterization of Lignin

Lignin is a complex organic compound crucial to the structural tissues of vascular plants, such as trees. The cyclic structure and aromaticity of lignin give it significant potential to be used as a renewable and safe replacement for toxic aromatic compounds in chemical and industrial processes. The purpose of this experiment was to characterize lignin, specifically the particle diameter and zeta potential, using both the Zetasizer Nano ZSP and the ImageJ image processing software, and to compare the accuracy of both measurement methods. Due to the natural fluorescence of lignin, a fluorescence microscope is used to capture images of lignin particles. By having a known distance and the scale of measurement, with ImageJ it is possible to calculate distances, such as the diameters of particles in images. The Zetasizer Nano ZSP is a device capable of measuring both particle diameter and zeta potential, which is the electrical charge existing on particles suspended in a medium. Small amounts of lignin, in powder form, are placed into scintillation vials with different amounts of distilled water to create 3 different concentrations of sample to measure using the Zetasizer. Between 10-15mL of sample are placed into specialized measurement cells and put into the Zetasizer. Multiple measurements are conducted and averaged to achieve accurate results. The measured zeta potential value is indicative of the stability of the lignin. If the value of zeta potential is higher than 30mV, negative or positive, it has a high stability and low reactivity. The average values of zeta potential measured by the Zetasizer ranged from -27mV to -21mV. The particle diameter is important in characterization, as the smaller and more distributed the particles are, there is a larger surface area for reactions to occur. Average particle diameter measured by the Zetasizer ranged from 926-976µm. The results from the Zetasizer Nano ZSP are more accurate than those from the ImageJ software, as ImageJ allows for a substantial amount of human error to impact the results. The outcomes help direct future experiments using lignin and beneficial to future research concerning lignin and its potential.