Rendered Animal By-products Research Articles

Fish Responses to Alternative Feeding Ingredients under Abiotic Chronic Stress.

Aquaculture has become one of the most attractive food production activities as it provides high-quality protein for the growing human population. However, the abiotic chronic stress of fish in intensive fish farming leads to a detrimental condition that affects their health and somatic growth, comprising productive performance. This work aims to comprehensively review the impact of alternative and novel dietary protein sources on fish somatic growth, metabolism, and antioxidative capacity under environmental/abiotic stressors. The documental research indicates that ingredients from rendered animal by-products, insects, bacteria as single-cell proteins, and fungal organisms (e.g., yeast, filamentous fungus, and mushrooms) benefit fish health and performance. A set of responses allows fish growth, health, and survival to remain unaffected by feeding with alternative ingredients during chronic environmental stress. Those ingredients stimulate the production of enzymes such as catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and selenoproteins that counteract ROS effects. In addition, the humoral immune system promotes immunoglobulin production (IgM) and cortisol plasmatic reduction. Further investigation must be carried out to establish the specific effect by species. Additionally, the mixture and the pre-treatment of ingredients such as hydrolysates, solid fermentations, and metabolite extraction potentialize the beneficial effects of diets in chronically stressed fish.

Alternative Proteins for Fish Diets: Implications beyond Growth.

Simple SummaryAquaculture is now well-established as a provider of protein for human consumption, and its contribution will be paramount to providing food for a nine billion population in 2050. Protein is usually the major constituent of fish feeds and the most expensive ingredient. For years, fishmeal was the preferential protein source in fish diets, but environmental and economic concerns led to the search for more sustainable proteins. Hence, research on alternative protein sources to fishmeal was fruitful, being firstly directed to terrestrial plant ingredients. Recently, research on novel ingredients, such as insect meals, macroalgae, microalgae, and yeasts, has proliferated. However, the impacts of protein and its constituents (amino acids) go beyond fish growth. Thus, this review will provide knowledge on the impacts of alternative/novel protein sources on fish stress and immune responses, disease resistance, and health. Although some negative impacts of alternative ingredients, for instance, on gut integrity and immune responses have been observed, research results also point to the potential beneficial effects of novel ingredients, such as insect meals, on fish health. This information is essential to the development of innovative diets that guarantee the production of healthy fish with high quality standards and optimised welfare conditions.Aquaculture has been challenged to find alternative ingredients to develop innovative feed formulations that foster a sustainable future growth. Given the most recent trends in fish feed formulation on the use of alternative protein sources to decrease the dependency of fishmeal, it is fundamental to evaluate the implications of this new paradigm for fish health and welfare. This work intends to comprehensively review the impacts of alternative and novel dietary protein sources on fish gut microbiota and health, stress and immune responses, disease resistance, and antioxidant capacity. The research results indicate that alternative protein sources, such as terrestrial plant proteins, rendered animal by-products, insect meals, micro- and macroalgae, and single cell proteins (e.g., yeasts), may negatively impact gut microbiota and health, thus affecting immune and stress responses. Nevertheless, some of the novel protein sources, such as insects and algae meals, have functional properties and may exert an immunostimulatory activity. Further research on the effects of novel protein sources, beyond growth, is clearly needed. The information gathered here is of utmost importance, in order to develop innovative diets that guarantee the production of healthy fish with high quality standards and optimised welfare conditions, thus contributing to a sustainable growth of the aquaculture industry.

Dual Inoculation With Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Phosphorus Solubilizing Fungi Synergistically Enhances the Mobilization and Plant Uptake of Phosphorus From Meat and Bone Meal

Phosphorus (P) is the second most important mineral nutrient for plant growth and plays a vital role in maintaining global food security. The natural phosphorus reserves [phosphate rock (PR)] are declining at an unprecedented rate, which will threaten the sustainable food supply in near future. Rendered animal byproducts such as meat and bone meal (MBM), could serve as a sustainable alternative to meet crop phosphorus demand. Even though nitrogen (N) from MBM is readily mineralized within a few days, >75% of the P in MBM is present as calcium phosphate that is sparingly available to plants. Thus, application of MBM with the aim of meeting crop N demand could result in buildup of P reserves in soil, which necessitates the need to improve the P mobilization from MBM to achieve higher plant P use efficiency. Here, we tested the potential of two microbial inoculum-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and P solubilizing fungi (Penicillium bilaiae), in improving the mobilization of P from MBM and the subsequent P uptake by maize (Zea mays). Compared to the non-inoculated MBM control, the application of P. bilaiae increased the P mobilization from MBM by more than two-fold and decreased the content of calcium bound P in the soil by 26%. However, despite this mobilization, P. bilaiae did not increase the tissue content of P in maize. On the other hand, AMF inoculation with MBM increased the plant root, shoot biomass, and plant P uptake as compared to non-inoculated control, but did not decrease the calcium bound P fraction of the soil, indicating there was limited P mobilization. The simultaneous application of both AMF and P. bilaiae in association with MBM resulted in the highest tissue P uptake of maize with a concomitant decrease in the calcium bound P in the soil, indicating the complementary functional traits of AMF and P. bilaiae in plant P nutrition from MBM. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi inoculation with MBM also increased the plant photosynthesis rate (27%) and root phosphomonoesterase activity (40%), which signifies the AMF associated regulation of plant physiology. Collectively, our results demonstrate that P mobilization and uptake efficiency from MBM could be improved with the combined use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and P. bilaiae.

“What a Waste”—Can We Improve Sustainability of Food Animal Production Systems by Recycling Food Waste Streams into Animal Feed in an Era of Health, Climate, and Economic Crises?

Food waste has been a major barrier to achieving global food security and environmental sustainability for many decades. Unfortunately, food waste has become an even bigger problem in many countries because of supply chain disruptions during the COVID-19 pandemic and African Swine Fever epidemic. Although Japan and South Korea have been leaders in recycling food waste into animal feed, countries that produce much greater amounts of food waste, such as the United States and the European Union, have lagged far behind. Concerns about the risk of transmission of bacteria, prions, parasites, and viruses have been the main obstacles limiting the recycling of food waste streams containing animal-derived tissues into animal feed and have led to government regulations restricting this practice in the U.S. and EU. However, adequate thermal processing is effective for inactivating all biological agents of concern, perhaps except for prions from infected ruminant tissues. The tremendous opportunity for nitrogen and phosphorus resource recovery along with several other environmental benefits from recycling food waste streams and rendered animal by-products into animal feed have not been fully appreciated for their substantial contribution toward solving our climate crisis. It is time to revisit our global approach to improving economic and environmental sustainability by more efficiently utilizing the abundant supply of food waste and animal tissues to a greater extent in animal feed while protecting human and animal health in food animal production systems.

Detection of Bovine Central Nervous System Tissues in Rendered Animal By-Products by One-Step Real-Time Reverse Transcription PCR Assay

Contamination of rendered animal byproducts with central nervous system tissues (CNST) from animals with bovine spongiform encephalopathy is considered one of the vehicles of disease transmission. Removal from the animal feed chain of CNST originated from cattle of a specified age category, species-labeling of rendered meat products, and testing of rendered products for bovine CNST are tasks associated with the epidemiological control of bovine spongiform encephalopathy. A single-step TaqMan real-time reverse transcriptase (RRT) PCR assay was developed and evaluated for specific detection of bovine glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) mRNA, a biomarker of bovine CNST, in rendered animal by-products. An internal amplification control, mammalian b -actin mRNA, was coamplified in the duplex RRT-PCR assay to monitor amplification efficiency, normalize amplification signals, and avoid false-negative results. The functionality of the GFAP mRNA RRT-PCR was assessed through analysis of laboratory-generated binary mixtures of bovine central nervous system (CNS) and muscle tissues treated under various thermal settings imitating industrial conditions. The assay was able to detect as low as 0.05 % (wt/wt) bovine brain tissue in binary mixtures heat treated at 110 to 130°C for 20 to 60 min. Further evaluation of the GFAP mRNA RRT-PCR assay involved samples of industrial rendered products of various species origin and composition obtained from commercial sources and rendering plants. Low amounts of bovine GFAP mRNA were detected in several bovine-rendered products, which was in agreement with declared species composition. An accurate estimation of CNS tissue content in industrial-rendered products was complicated due to a wide range of temperature and time settings in rendering protocols. Nevertheless, the GFAP mRNA RRT-PCR assay may be considered for bovine CNS tissue detection in rendered products in combination with other available tools (for example, animal age verification) in inspection programs.

Practical supplementation of shrimp and fish feeds with crystalline amino acids

Abstract In 2011, aquaculture accounted for almost 64 million MT of fish, crustaceans and mollusks (FAO, 2012). Fish meal has historically been the protein source of choice in aquatic feeds, but global supplies have reached a plateau making it less available and more expensive. As a consequence, the use of cheaper proteins made from processed plant proteins, byproducts from agriculture, fisheries or the slaughtering of terrestrial production animals was popularized within the aquaculture feed industry. Although these alternative ingredients may contain a crude protein (CP) content comparable to fish meal, they may be less digestible and deficient in one or more of the ten essential amino acids (EAAs). This has required the adoption of more modern formulation approaches which take into account nutrient availability, especially in regard to EAAs. EAA requirements have been established for a number of species of fish and shrimp. Methionine (Met) followed by lysine (Lys) are the first limiting amino acids in plant and rendered animal byproducts. Formulating for EAAs by simply increasing the dietary inclusion levels of the feedstuffs that contain intact sources of the targeted EAAs can lead to overformulated feeds with excessive levels of CP and other nutrients. A more rational approach is to supplement the diet with crystalline amino acids (CAAs). A first step to the application of a nutrient-based formulation approach is knowledge of the digestible EAA content of the ingredients available for use in the formula. It is highly desirable to formulate on a CP, EAA and energy digestibility basis in line with current formulation practices of most modern feed companies. Further expansion of current EAA digestibility values across ingredients and farmed aquatic species will further enable nutrient based formulation. By formulating on an EAA basis across farmed aquatic species, nutritionists have realized least cost formulation opportunities with the use of CAAs which are now available throughout the world at accessible prices. The CAAs mostly used by the animal feed industry, in order of usage, are the following: dl -methionine or Met analogs, l -lysine, l -threonine, l -tryptophan, l -isoleucine and l -valine. Met and Lys are the most currently used due to their wide availability and importance as most limiting EAAs in plant protein ingredients, such as soy and corn based meals. There is a relatively wide variation in the dietary Met and Lys requirement values for farmed fish and shrimp. This is due to differences in species requirements, culture systems, developmental stage and composition of experimental diets. The dietary Met requirements for fish and shrimp range from 0.5 to 1.5% and from 0.7 to 0.9% of the diet, respectively (NRC, 2011). The dietary Lys requirements range from 1.2% to 3.3% of the diet for cultured fish and from 1.6 to 2.1% of the diet for cultured shrimp. Appropriate dietary Met and Lys levels improve the use of other EAAs because they have the ability to reduce the oxidation rate of other amino acids. The present review discusses bioavailability, requirements and sources of EAAs and practical considerations for their application in aquaculture feeds. The appropriate supplementation of crystalline amino acids in feeds for fish and shrimp represents an opportunity to reduce formulation costs in the face of the volatile commodity market of protein ingredients and the short supply of fish meal. Competitiveness in the aquatic animal feed industry today depends upon application of modern and environmentally-sound formulation techniques based on nutrient value and supplementation with crystalline EAA to meet animal nutrient requirements.

Apparent digestibility coefficients of nutrients in brewer's and rendered animal by-products for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum))

Two experiments were conducted to measure the apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) of nutrients, dry matter, and energy in by-products of the brewing industry and in selected animal protein ingredients for rainbow trout. In experiment 1, 500 rainbow trout (average body weight 170.8±5.5 g) were stocked in ten 140-L digestibility tanks with 50 fish per tank and two tanks per diet. Yttrium oxide was used as an inert marker in the diets. The high fibre content of brewer's dried grains (BDG) affected the ADCs of dry matter but not of protein or amino acids. Brewer's dried yeast had a higher protein content than BDG, but ADC values for protein and amino acids were significantly lower. The ADCs of phosphorus were similar among brewer's dried products. The BDG high-protein, fraction had marginally higher ADC values for dry matter, protein and amino acids than regular BDG. Conditions in experiment 2 were similar to those in experiment 1. ADC values for spray-dried porcine plasma were over 98% for dry matter, crude protein, crude fat, and gross energy. ADC values for spent hen meal were higher than those of poultry by-product meal or feather meal, with the exception of gross energy. However, spent hen meal was unpalatable. The ADCs in these ingredients were variable, and this variability must be taken into account when these ingredients are formulated into feeds for fish.

Utilization of High Levels of Meat and Bone Meal in Broiler Diets

Recent sanctions on feeding rendered animal by-products to ruminants may favor feeding high levels of meat and bone meal to broilers. Two samples of meat and bone meal (MBM) - low-ash = 25.87% ash; high-ash = 34.85% ash - were subjected to amino acid and proximate analysis, with digestible amino acid (DAA) and metabolizable energy content calculated. Each source was used to formulate diets in which the minimum DAA was 100% of NRC total amino acid content. The nonphytate phosphorus (NPP) content was increased in increments of 0.10%. Control diets utilized dicalcium phosphate to maintain either a constant 0.45% NPP or to provide levels of NPP recommended by NRC for different age broilers. Inclusion of MBM in broiler diets at levels higher than traditionally used (up to 12.98% of high-ash and 17.76% of low-ash meat and bone meal) had no adverse effects. However, the economics of protein sources as well as supplemental phosphorus sources must be considered. Increasing the level of MBM above that needed to provide adequate levels of NPP may be an environmental concern in some areas of poultry production.

Raw and Rendered Animal By-Products as Ingredients in Dog Diets

Raw and Rendered Animal By-Products as Ingredients in Dog Diets

Raw and rendered animal by-products as ingredients in dog diets.

Approximately 25 to 40% of the DM in premium dog diets is animal by-product. However, limited information is available regarding the composition and digestibility of these by-products, especially small intestinal digestibility. The effects of raw and rendered animal by-products incorporated into dog diets on nutrient digestion at the ileum and in the total tract were studied in this experiment. Diets fed contained various animal by-products including a rendered beef meat and bone meal (RMBM); fresh beef (FB); poultry by-product meal (PBPM); fresh poultry (FP); a plant-based control protein source, defatted soy flour (DS); and an animal-based control protein source, dehydrated whole egg (WE). The diets were extruded and kibbled. By-products varied widely in concentrations of OM, CP, amino acids, and fat. Nutrient intakes were numerically higher for FB than for all other treatments. All nutrient intakes were higher (P < .03) for the FB treatment than for the RMBM treatment. Digestibilities of DM, OM, CP, fat, and GE at the ileum were higher (P < .06) when dogs were fed diets containing FP than when fed diets containing PBPM. Amino acids were highly digestible at the ileum; however, digestibilities of all amino acids except cystine were higher (P < .04) for the diets incorporating FP vs PBPM. Total tract digestion was different among treatments for DM (P < .02), OM (P < .01), and GE (P < .02), and diets containing animal by-products were similar in total tract digestibility, greater than the DS control, and lower than the WE control. Rendering of poultry, but not beef, seemed to have a slight negative influence on small intestinal, but not total tract, digestibility by dogs.

Current Trends in Foodborne Salmonellosis in the United States and Canada

In the United States, Salmonella has been isolated from over 31,000 persons during 1979; this figure is more than 60% higher than isolations made 18 years earlier. In Canada, the change from about 5,000 isolations from humans in 1977 to more than 8,000 in 1979 is also approximately a 60% increase, but over an interval of only 3 years. In the U.S. during 1973 – 1978, salmonellosis accounted for 40% of reported cases of foodborne disease and 23% of reported outbreaks of foodborne disease. In Canada during 1973–1975, it accounted for 39% of all reported cases of foodborne disease and 25% of reported outbreaks of foodborne disease. Foods most frequently reported as vehicles of salmonellosis in the U.S. were beef, turkey, homemade ice cream (containing eggs), pork and chicken. Turkey was the most frequently reported vehicle in Canada. Factors usually contributing to these outbreaks (in order of importance) are improper cooling, lapse of a day or more between preparation and serving, inadequate cooking or heat processing, ingestion of contaminated raw ingredients, and cross-contamination. Changes in the relative frequency of isolations of particular serovars sometimes indicate spread of foodborne Salmonella by a particular food or the effectiveness of a control measure. Factors that perpetuate the Salmonella problem are Salmonella-contaminated rendered animal byproducts and contaminated feed, concentrating animals in feed lots and brooding houses, spreading Salmonella during animal slaughtering and processing foods of animal origin, national and international distribution of food and feeds, food preparation and storage practices in foodservice establishments and homes and environmental contamination from animal wastes and other sources.

Fluorescent-Antibody Methods for Detecting Salmonellae in Animal By-Products

SUMMARY Direct-culture and fluorescent-antibody (FA) procedures were used for examining 550 samples of rendered animal by-products for salmonellae. Tetrathionate brilliant-green (TBG) and selenite bril­ liant-green sulfapyridine (SBG sulfa) enrichments incubated at 42 C respectively detected 82% and 73% of the 158 samples found positive by these two direct-culture methods. Three FA procedures were tested in parallel. TBG, SBG sulfa, and gram-negative (GN) broth, the last recommended by the USDA, were used for primary enrichment followed by subculturing for 5-6 hr in GN broth from which FA smears were prepared and brilliant­ green agar plates were streaked. There were 454 subcultures which were FA-positive from the three procedures used, and salmonellae were recovered from 342. Of the 150 subcultures which were FA-questionable, salmonellae were recovered from 14; and of 1,046 subcultures which were FA­ negative, the organism was isolated from 17. The data indicated that SBG sulfa and TBG can be substituted successfully for GN broth as the FA primary enrichment. This sub­ stitution resulted in greater correlation between FA results and salmonella isolations.

Enrichment Serology Compared with a Direct-Culture Procedure for Isolating Salmonellae from Rendered Animal By-Products

A direct-culture method and an enrichment serology (ES) procedure were compared for isolating salmonella from rendered animal by-products. SBG sulfa enrichment incubated at 42 C was used for direct culture of all 399 samples. Tetrathionate brilliant green (TBG) and SBG sulfa were used in the ES procedure with all samples, and selenite cystine (SC) with 144 of the samples; cultures were incubated at both 42 and 37 C for comparative purposes. All selective enrichment broth cultures in the ES procedure were plated to determine whether salmonellae were present in the medium used to seed the M-broth. Salmonellae were recovered from 182 samples; 76% were detected by direct culture and 86% by the pre-enrichment procedure. More cultures yielded salmonellae from both TBG and SBG sulfa incubated at 42 C than at 37 C; essentially no difference was noted for SC. In the ES procedure, TBG was superior to either of the selenite broths at both incubation temperatures, in that TBG yielded the highest percentage of agreement between cultural isolations and M-broth agglutination. Results indicated that cultural isolation is a more accurate method of detecting salmonellae from rendered byproducts than is agglutination from M-broth.

Effect of a Chemical Additive on Salmonella in Poultry Feed and Host Birds ,

SINCE Erwin (1955) reported what was believed to be the first recovery of viable salmonella organisms from commercially prepared poultry feed, salmonella have been of concern to the feed and food production industries. Domestic animals are a major reservoir of salmonellae. This reservoir can be maintained through ingestion of contaminated feeds, thus stimulating investigations of methods to eliminate or reduce incidence of salmonella in feeds and feed ingredients.Several workers (Rasmussen et al., 1964; Crane et al., 1967; Adams, 1968; and Quadri, 1970) reported that heat treatments, such as pelleting and extrusion, reduced incidence of salmonella in poultry feeds and rendered animal by-products. However, equipment costs make control of salmonella by these methods infeasible for many poultrymen.Reported here are effects of a chemical additive7 on salmonella presence in poultry feed.EXPERIMENTALExperiment 1. A slurry of 800 ml. of sterile water and 200 gm. of meat and bone meal…

A Comparison of Incubation Time and Temperature for the Isolation of Salmonella

The isolation of salmonella from rendered animal by-products and from poultry litter has been reported by a number of investigators in recent years (1,2,3,4,11,12,14). Although these materials contain many other organisms from various sources, the association of these other organisms with salmonella is variable and unpredictable. Hence, salmonella must be specifically isolated and cannot be inferred indirectly. A variety of cultural methods have been recommended for the isolation and identification of salmonella from rendered animal by-products and from litter (6,10,13,15) ; however, little attention has been paid to the possibility of using an incubation temperature higher than 37?C for their isolation. Harvey and Thomson (8) and Dixon (5) recommended 43?C for incubation of selenite enrichments for the isolation of salmonella from human feces. Their results indicated not only an increase in the number of positive samples, but also greater purity of growth of salmonella on the plating medium. However, it must be noted that McCoy (10) found that incubating tetrathionate broth at 43?C was lethal to salmonella.

Dry Heat Resistance of Salmonellae in Rendered Animal By-Products

SEVERAL investigators have reported that animal feeds, and particularly animal feed constitutents of animal origin, frequently are contaminated with salmonellae. Pomeroy and Grady (1960), and other workers (Watkins et al., 1959; Grumbles and Flowers, 1961; Boyer et al., 1958; 1961) have adequately reviewed this subject, including the contamination of poultry feeds and feed ingredients. In spite of the numerous reports in the literature as to the high incidence of salmonellae in animal feed constituents the numbers of salmonellae, if present, are invariably low.Previous publications by Leistner et al. (1961), Niven (1962), Hansen et al. (1962), and Leistner et al. (1963) have emphasized that the most practical and economical method for preventing Salmonella recontamination in rendered animal by-products is to follow good sanitary and house-keeping procedures in the handling of rendered material. However, it is realized that due to the type of construction employed by some establishments an effective sanitary…