Oil Spill Removal Research Articles

Epoxidized natural rubber–magnetite nanocomposites for oil spill recovery

New, eco-friendly nanocomposite materials have been synthesized from natural rubber (NR) and magnetite nanoparticles for the first time. The poor oil resistance of natural rubber is exploited for the removal of oil spills. Towards this purpose, mildly epoxidized natural rubber (ENR)–magnetite nanoparticle (MN) nanocomposites are prepared and the absorption of petrol (gasoline) is studied. The extent of epoxidation is controlled in such a manner that the NR does not lose its elasticity while retaining to a significant degree its oil absorbing property. Epoxidation also serves as a means for binding sufficient quantity of MNs so that the composite can be recovered using a magnetic field. ENR with 5 mol% of epoxidation served as the best absorbent among all the absorbents studied as it was stable in petrol even after many days of immersion. It is observed that the ENR–MN nanocomposite absorbs 7 g of petrol per gram without any mass loss. The material was reused for several cycles without much loss in the capacity. The petrol uptake of ENR–MN is greater than that of butyl rubber which is the most commercially used rubber for oil spill removal. Porous rubber was also synthesized for the first time as oil uptake is facilitated not only by the hydrophobicity but also by the capillary absorption. Porous ENR absorbed a relatively larger amount of oil and exhibited the highest stability in oil. All the sorbents have quite high absorption capacities to be applied practically with a very low water uptake and a few of the absorbents could be satisfactorily reused. The model studies promise their potential use in the environmental field.

A New Coagulant for Spilled Oil Removal with Bentonite and Calcium Chlorine and Sawdust

A new coagulant for spilled oil with bentonite and CaCl2 and sawdust has been done in our lab. The experiment indicates that bentonite is a good coagulant, especilly accompany with CaCl2 and sawdust. The function of bentonite is coagulation, adsorption and emulsification. CaCl2 is a good coagulant-mate, and strengthen the coagulating function of bentonite. It can be used as the source of calcium ions, which can strongly adsorb on both bentonite and oil droplets, and is helpful for the coagulation between bentonite and oil droplets. Sawdust is also very important, its function is buoyant, bridge-made and adsorbent.

Peat-based sorbents for the removal of oil spills from water surface: Application of artificial neural network modeling

Removing of oil slicks from sea, rivers and lakes formed as a result of accidental oil spillage is of great concern. Such ecological accidents have created a great need to find more efficient and low-cost materials for oil spill cleanup. In this work three types of peat-based sorbents were compared in order to determine their potential for oil spill cleanup. The best peat sorbent PT-1 can sorb 12–16 times its weight from different oils. The retention profile and images captured by optical microscope have revealed that oil sorption process involves both capillary and adsorption phenomena. A feed-forward artificial neural network has been constructed to predict the removal efficiency of oil slick from water surface by peat sorbent PT-1 based on 45 experimental runs obtained in a laboratory study. The effect of input variables such as sorbent dosage, drainage time and initial thickness of oil slick has been studied to optimize the conditions for maximum removal efficiency. On the basis of confirmation run result, the optimal operating conditions involve the following values of input variables: sorbent dosage of 4.98 g/dm 2, a drainage time of 5 s and the initial oil-slick thickness of 3.3 mm. For the optimal conditions the removal efficiency of 99.21% has been obtained experimentally being the maximum value of response in this study.

Removal of Organic Compounds from Water by Using a Gold Nanoparticle–Poly(dimethylsiloxane) Nanocomposite Foam

A low density, highly compressible, porous foam of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) incorporated with Au nanoparticles (10-50 nm) has been synthesized by using a single-step process with water as a medium. It exhibits high swelling ability (≈600%) against benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX)-a property that has been exploited in the removal of oil spills from water. It is resistant to harsh chemical environments. It is also effective against odorous sulfur containing contaminants such as thioanisole. It works repeatedly and efficiently over many cycles. The regeneration of the foam is rather simple: heating in air to 300 °C for short time brings back its original activity. The fascinating properties of Au nanoparticles could be mingled with those of PDMS to provide a sustainable and practical solution for water treatment. It is also demonstrated to work effectively for deodorizing garlic extract with a promise as a food packaging material.

Effect of Disk Offset Angle on the Hydrodynamic Performance of Rotating Disk Skimmers During Oil Spill Recovery

Abstract Investigation of a novel parameter that considerably enhances the performance of disk oil skimmers is introduced. This is of a great significance for the contingency plans of removing oil spills from aquatic environments and deciding their scenarios. Efficiency of a conventional disk oil skimmer could be nearly doubled by careful optimization of the angle between the plane of the disk and the vertical plane. Therefore, this parameter is particularly significant as it requires only a minimum effort to modify existing disk skimmers. Results revealed the presence of a minimum immersed area required for the offset angle to be effective. An optimum rotational speed of around 80 rpm was found, regardless of the design or operating parameters applied. For each disk diameter studied, an optimum offset angle was found. These optimum values were independent of the oil film thickness and oil type. A maximum improvement of ∼204% in oil recovery rate was obtained for the largest disk diameter studied and oil ...

Fast and Selective Removal of Oils from Water Surface via Highly Hydrophobic Core−Shell Fe2O3@C Nanoparticles under Magnetic Field

The removal of oil spills or organic contaminants from water surface is of great technological importance for environmental protection. A major challenge is the fast distribution and collection of absorbent materials with high separation selectivity, good thermal stability, and excellent recyclability. Here we reported fast and selective removal of oils from water surface through core-shell Fe(2)O(3)@C nanoparticles under magnetic field. These nanoparticles combined with unsinkable, highly hydrophobic and superoleophilic properties, could selectively absorb lubricating oil up to 3.8 times of the particles' weight while completely repelling water. The oil-absorbed nanoparticles were quickly collected in seconds by applying an external magnetic field. More importantly, the oil could be readily removed from the surfaces of nanoparticles by a simple ultrasonic treatment whereas the particles still kept highly hydrophobic and superolephilic characteristics. Experiment results showed that the highly hydrophobic Fe(2)O(3)@C nanoparticles could be reused in water-oil separation for many cycles. Our results suggest a facile and efficient method that might find practical applications in the cleanup of oil spills and the removal of organic pollutants on water surface.

THE PLANNING PROCESS OF THE PANAMA CANAL AUTHORITY AND ITS RESULTS FOR OIL SPILL PREPAREDNESS

ABSTRACT Ships from all parts of the world transit daily through the Panama Canal. Some 13,000 to 14,000 vessels with all types of cargo use it every year. In fact, commercial transportation activities through the Canal represent approximately 5% of the world trade. This waterway is managed by the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) and, consistent with sound emergency preparedness actions, the ACP has developed a comprehensive contingency plan to provide the organization with a response system to minimize the consequences of adverse scenarios. The plan includes operational, strategic, and information toolbox components. It also uses the Incident Command System (ICS) and the Planning “P” model as a methodology to conduct a proactive response. The ICS allows responders to be organized with a common terminology, with clear hierarchy and functions, and with a modular and flexible structure. In this way, it adjusts to the needs of an incident, instead of trying to adjust the incident or responders to the normal structures of their agencies. The Planning “P” aids the process for the ICS to manage the incident by objectives and to elaborate concrete actions to mitigate all aspects of an incident, not just tactical matters. During the planning process, the need to increase oil spill response capabilities was recognized. Consequently, the ACP presented to its customers a program known as the Panama Canal Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (PCSOPEP) that went into effect on January 1, 2005, after ample consultation and modifications with the international maritime community. The successful implementation of the PCSOPEP involved several stages. The Regulation on Navigation in Panama Canal Waters was updated, establishing the responsibility of vessels during spills, the presentation of an oil spill plan specific for the Canal as a transit requirement, the application of tariffs to cover the costs of maintaining equipment and training, and the designation of the ACP as the sole oil spill removal organization in Canal waters. The implementation of these policies also involved the development of strategies, outlining investment projects, and increasing the baseline number of employees with training in oil spill response. Initially, response strategies focused on mechanical recovery, but the program considered the evaluation and incorporation of alternative countermeasures as response protocols at the level of a national contingency plan.

INTEGRATING YOUR RESPONSE ORGANIZATION INTO EVERYDAY SUPPORT ACTIVITIES – MORE BANG FOR THE BUCK

ABSTRACT In the mid 1990'S, Alaska Clean Seas transformed from a typical oil spill response organization into an organization more involved with day to day operations in member company fields. A typical oil spill response organization is a fire house type organization with a warehouse and personnel which maintain equipment and provide spill response training. Today, ACS personnel are assigned to member company fields and provide other services such as hazardous waste handling, air opacity readings, small spill response services, environmental field sampling, environmental management program maintenance, and environmental inspections. This is combined with the spill response equipment maintenance and spill response team training. The services provided are outline in a Customer Service Agreement which is signed with each operating area. It outlines the services the ACS technicians will provide, which training is provided by ACS, and which training is provided by the member company. The financial obligations are outlined in the Cost Sharing Principles. These principles indicate which services are considered allocated in the normal ACS budget and which services are direct billed back to the member company operating areas. In general, response equipment maintenance and spill response training are allocated services with the remaining being direct billed. The benefits to this type of arrangement are many. The member companies obtain services for every day type activities and build up a better working relationship with the response organization. The spill organization members become acquainted with member company personnel and resources. They also become familiar with the area and with other contract services in the area. During a spill event, this knowledge increases the efficiency of the response and increases the trust between the member company and spill response organization. Also, on day to day spill responses, the spill response organization personnel work hand and hand with regulatory agencies which builds up the trust and familiarization for bigger events. With this arrangement, ACS is also able to sustain a higher number of qualified personnel. This improves ACS'S capability during a spill event and assists the member companies with a higher quality of spill response services. This paper provides information on methods that an Oil Spill Removal Organization (OSRO) can become more involved in member company daily activities for the benefit of both the member company and the OSRO.

PREPAREDNESS ASSESSMENT… STILL THE KEY TO ACQUIRING AND MAINTAINING, “RIGHT MIX” CAPABILITIES

ABSTRACT The most recent national study of the adequacy of government owned versus private sector oil spill removal capability, known as the capability limits or (CAPS) review, is currently seven years old. While oil spill response preparedness assessments have continued via the National Strike Force Coordination Center Oil Spill Removal Organization (OSRO) assessment visits, the Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP), and the Spills of National Significance (SONS) exercises, the outdated CAPS review stands as a great impediment to the Coast Guard's ability to continue to make sound overarching policy decisions regarding known national oil spill removal equipment inventories and expertise levels as they pertain to oil spill risks. The CAPS review established a baseline by which regulatory decisions pertaining to the “Right government/private Mix” of capabilities for oil spill response could be made. The ability to accurately assess this mix is a critical component of the Preparedness model that has been used for oil spill response and should continue to be used for Preparedness for all contingency response. This model is depicted below in Figure 1.FIGURE 1PREPAREDNESS (TO RESPOND) MODELFIGURE 1. PREPAREDNESS (TO RESPOND) MODEL Prior to Sept 11, 2001, it was assumed that the costly and cumbersome to complete findings of the CAPS review would remain valid for an extensive period of time. This was a valid assumption given the stability of Post OPA 90 oil spill response capability at the time. When Sept 11, 2001 shifted government and private response priorities away from oil spills, the validity of the assumption began to degrade. Unfortunately, a request for an update must now compete for funding and support with security-related studies. Further, just as this study provides appropriate support for overarching oil spill regulatory decisions, so too could it be used as the national preparedness assessment model for any developing Hazardous Substance or Weapons of Mass Destruction legislation. The oil spill response communities' inability to promote the value of having an easily updated thorough CAPS review process ensures the model will be overlooked or dismissed in the development of a healthy national all contingency response capabilities assessment program. All of this negatively impacts national preparedness pertaining to either oil or HAZMAT response. To bolster my assertions this paper will first define and discuss impressions of the 1998 CAPS review. Secondly, the paper will review some of the long-standing response principles that have established assessment as crucial to preparedness in the oil spill response field. Lastly, the paper will outline an assessment model that incorporates the successes of the oil spill response program and explain the value that adoption of such a model would have for a national all-contingencies preparedness assessment program.

Anaerobic biodegradation of no. 2 diesel fuel in soil: a soil column study

Soil and sediments are contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons in many parts of the world. Anaerobic degradation of petroleum hydrocarbon is very relevant in removing oil spills in the anaerobic zones of soil and sediments. This research investigates the possibility of degrading no. diesel fuel under anaerobic conditions. Anaerobic packed soil columns were used to simulate and study in situ bioremediation of soil contaminated with diesel fuel. Several anaerobic conditions were evaluated in soil columns, including sulfate reducing, nitrate reducing, methanogenic, and mixed electron acceptor conditions. The objectives were to determine the extent of diesel fuel degradation in soil columns under various anaerobic conditions and identify the best conditions for efficient removal of diesel fuel. Diesel fuels were degraded significantly under all conditions compared to no electron supplemented soil column (natural attenuation). However, the rate of diesel degradation was the highest under mixed electron acceptor conditions followed in order by sulfate reducing, nitrate reducing, and methanogenic conditions. Under mixed electron acceptor condition 81% of diesel fuel was degraded within 310 days. While under sulfate reducing condition 54.5% degradation of diesel fuel was observed for the same period. This study showed evidence for diesel fuel metabolism in a mixed microbial population system similar to any contaminated field sites, where heterogeneous microbial population exists.

Anaerobic biodegradation of no. 2 diesel fuel in soil: a soil column study

Soil and sediments are contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons in many parts of the world. Anaerobic degradation of petroleum hydrocarbon is very relevant in removing oil spills in the anaerobic zones of soil and sediments. This research investigates the possibility of degrading no. diesel fuel under anaerobic conditions. Anaerobic packed soil columns were used to simulate and study in situ bioremediation of soil contaminated with diesel fuel. Several anaerobic conditions were evaluated in soil columns, including sulfate reducing, nitrate reducing, methanogenic, and mixed electron acceptor conditions. The objectives were to determine the extent of diesel fuel degradation in soil columns under various anaerobic conditions and identify the best conditions for efficient removal of diesel fuel. Diesel fuels were degraded significantly under all conditions compared to no electron supplemented soil column (natural attenuation). However, the rate of diesel degradation was the highest under mixed electron acceptor conditions followed in order by sulfate reducing, nitrate reducing, and methanogenic conditions. Under mixed electron acceptor condition 81% of diesel fuel was degraded within 310 days. While under sulfate reducing condition 54.5% degradation of diesel fuel was observed for the same period. This study showed evidence for diesel fuel metabolism in a mixed microbial population system similar to any contaminated field sites, where heterogeneous microbial population exists.

Formation of Consolidated Bed by Carbon Sorbent and Oil in Removal of Spilled Oil

Formation of a consolidated bed by carbon sorbent and oil in sorption removal of spilled oil was observed and substituted experimentally; the dynamics of this process was analyzed. A process for eliminating oil spills on the water surface using a carbon sorbent was developed.

STUDIES ON DIESEL OIL SPILLS REMOVAL FROM WATER SURFACE USING PEAT. PROCESS MODELLING AND OPTIMIZATION

Two main objectives were performed in this paper. The first objective aims to characterize the peat from physical, chemical and microbiological point of view. The second goal deals with applying of peat for Diesel oil spill removal from surface water. For this reason, the optimization of the sorption process was performed in order to improve the decontamination efficiency. The empirical model was established to express the correlation between decontamination efficiency and the process variables influencing the process, i.e. the height of sorbent column, immersion time and initial volumetric content of oil in water. Based on the mathematical model the optimal conditions of the experiment were determined by means of GRADIENT method. A good concordance between the optimal solution and the experimental response in this point was found. The dependence between the decontamination efficiency and the experimental variables were illustrated in 3D diagrams.

Assessing Progress and Benefits of Oil Spill Response Technology Development Since Exxon Valdez

ABSTRACT This paper describes a simple approach to quantifying progress and benefits associated with improvements in oil spill removal technology over the past decade, focusing on the most significant oil removal technologies: mechanical recovery, dispersant application and in-situ burning. All three technologies have been the focus of research and development (R&D) efforts since the Exxon Valdez spill. Notable progress has been made in refining the technologies and defining circumstances under which each option will be successful. These accomplishments have been qualitatively described in recent strategic technology assessments. The difficulty that arises in quantitatively predicting future benefits of these advances, is that expected increases in oil removal and associated cost savings are as much a function of specific circumstances of future spills as of advances in spill removal technologies. The specifics of future spills, particularly the larger more troublesome ones, are difficult to predict. In order to obtain representative quantitative estimates of these benefits, a hind-cast technique is demonstrated whereby the advanced technologies are applied to past spill scenarios to determine oil recovery and cost savings that would be realized if these spills were to occur in the future.

Revisions to the OSRO and Prep Guidelines: What's that about?1

ABSTRACT The Coast Guard's Oil Spill Removal Organization (OSRO) Classification Program Guidelines and National Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP) Guidelines are periodically reviewed and revalidated. The OSRO program, managed by the National Strike Force Coordination Center (NSFCC), affords plan holders relief from having to include extensive equipment lists within already lengthy plans. It also gives government plan reviewers a national standard against which to evaluate response contractors listed in plans. The PREP Guidelines offer a cycle of internal and external exercises to be followed in the preparedness cycle of plonning and assessment by government and industry members of the response community. For years, these programs enjoyed support from both government and industry. Recently, however, response community rumblings revealed growing doubt about the usefulness of these standards in assuring response readiness. This skepticism threatened to undermine both programs. The government responded by engaging industry through a series of meetings and public workshops to examine concerns and identify solutions. In the process, two critical findings revealed what had changed: 1) While initial regulatory momentum was high following enactment of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, industry and government plan holder focus had been slowly diverted to competing priorities; 2) The OSRO and PREP Guidelines, originally envisioned as tools to guide plan holders, had become a vehicles for plan holder acceptance of NSFCC evaluations of OSRO adequacy without local user analysis, and of OSRO exercises as sufficient without plan holder participation or oversight. The Coast Guard's response has been to overhaul each program's policy guideline to clarify the original intent of the response plan regulations. The success of these efforts hinges on their effectiveness to reemphasize that ultimate accountability falls on the shoulders of plan holders at the local level under active government oversight.

Shoreline Surface Washing Agent Test and Evaluation Protocol for Freshwater Use in the Great Lakes Region1

ABSTRACT Although opportunities exist to use shoreline surface washing agents for oil spill removal in freshwater environments, this response technique is seldom tried because little is known about its insitu effectiveness and toxicity. In January 2000, the Federal Region V Regional Response Team chartered a Subcommittee of international, federal, state and industry representatives to develop a protocol for evaluating the test use of shoreline surface washing agents in freshwater environments on oil spills of opportunity in the Great Lakes Region. Currently, mechanical and manual recovery are the primary means of oil spill cleanup in freshwater environments which can be costly, labor intensive, and often results in limited oil recovery. Oil recovery inefficiency is related to shoreline composition and complexity that allow oil to cover, fill, and penetrate the substrate. Responders, with limited options, may compromise their efforts by leaving residual oil in the environment or expend a substantial effort sanitizing the shoreline, which can be more detrimental to the environment. The application of shoreline surface washing agents may improve recovery efficiency and ameliorate long term harm to freshwater shorelines if properly applied. Surface washing agents may also reduce labor requirements typically associated with diminishing returns from continued mechanical or manual cleanups required to achieve similar oil removal results. The RRT V Subcommittee developed a protocol for conducting small-scale insitu tests on the effectiveness and toxicity of surface washing agents to gain experience and confidence in its utility as a response tool in freshwater environments. The resulting protocol guides the user in assessing physical criteria, constraints and special considerations needed to determine if the use of two surface washing agents is appropriate. The protocol also includes procedures for test preparation and application and provides effectiveness, water quality and toxicity monitoring guidelines, data collection, booming, and oil recovery procedures.

The OSRO Classification Program: Implementation of New Guidelines and its Impact on Industry Planholders and the US Coast Guard after September 11, 20011

ABSTRACT The Coast Guard's Oil Spill Removal Organization (OSRO) classification underwent a significant revision in April 2001 and its implementation demanded a genuine combined effort by all stakeholders after September 11, 2001. The 2001 revision eliminated the Average Most Probable Discharge (AMPD) classification from the National Strike Force Coordination Center (NSFCC) planning criteria and placed this responsibility on the plan holders and their OSROs. This revision also introduced the concept of Notification and Mobilization Times in an effort to align the new guidelines with the 33 Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) 154 and 155. These two factors, combined with a shift on mission priorities after the national incidents of September 11, created a major challenge in the OSRO guidelines implementation and training process. These new guidelines increased some of the minimum Boom, Effective Daily Recovery Capacities (EDRC) and Temporary Storage Capacity (TSC) requirements for two higher-level classifications Maximum Most Probable Discharge (MMPD) and Worst Case Discharge (WCD) at Tiers 1, 2, and 3. Consequently, the new guidelines had the potential to de-classify some existing OSROs and cause loss of classifications across operating areas: 41% for River/Canal, 38% for Inland, 60% for Great Lakes and 30% for Nearshore, Offshore and Open Ocean. The main cause for loss of classification was the regulatory mobilization time requirements for MMPD and WCD at Tier 1. This paper describes the process the NSFCC applied in order to accomplish the re-classification of 140 OSROs and the major issues that impacted all stakeholders: facility and vessel plan holders, Captains of the Ports (COTPs), OSROs and the NSFCC. Despite a twelve-month delay in the implementation timeline, the new guidelines were adjusted to reflect OSRO national response capability, allowing vessel and facility operators to fulfill the mandatory response planning criteria under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90).

New Carissa Response Air Operations

ABSTRACT In early February 1999, the unladen freighter M/V New Carissa ran aground near Coos Bay, Oregon. The subsequent oil spill, burning, and breaking, pumping, towing, and wreck removal efforts proved to be challenging and often unpredictable. Air operations were a critical and complex component of the New Carissa response. This paper contains an overview of the varied duties carried out utilizing aircraft, and discusses how both fixed-wing airplanes and helicopters were critical to response and salvage operations. The overview includes descriptions of air operations activities and discusses the types of aircraft utilized specific to each job. In addition, the challenges of successfully integrating air operations with the overall response will be addressed. New Carissa air operations included challenges, opportunities, and lessons that all responders will find useful.

PRESTAGING VERSUS MOBILITY OF RESPONSE EQUIPMENT INVENTORIES

ABSTRACT One of the many valuable aspects of Area Contingency Plans (ACPs) in the US is the identification of environmentally sensitive sites. Over recent years the natural evolution of the area planning process has commonly involved development of site specific response strategies for protection of these environmentally sensitive locations. Whether called Geographic Response Plans (GRPs), Site Specific Response Strategies (SSRS), or Geographic Response Strategies (GRSs) these plans typically identify the equipment and personnel needed to accomplish the prescribed strategies. Once strategies are developed, there is incentive to prestage equipment near the identified site to maximize the ability to implement the strategy identified in the plan. Regulatory agencies are now exerting additional pressure by requiring oil spill removal organizations (OSROs) to exercise these strategies on an annual or triennial basis. This pressure results in multiple competing OSROs prestaging similar or identical response inventories at or near the same sites. As a result, a growing percentage of the response equipment on the U.S. West Coast is now prestaged in duplicate or triplicate small stockpiles throughout coastal areas. Many of these prestaged packages are very site specific and include permanent mooring sites or equipment. This equipment is now configured to effectively protect a specific site. It may no longer be as flexible or as easily used under different conditions or at other locations. As a greater percentage of the equipment inventory becomes prestaged, what does this mean in terms of overall response mobility? Has the mobility of equipment or cascading of response equipment been affected? The combination of multiple OSROs, the increasing number of protection strategies, and the need to regularly exercise these strategies is resulting is an decreasingly mobile equipment inventory. At what point does this affect the tactical planning process? Is there a way to optimize preplanning and still achieve equipment flexibility?

Oil Spill Risks from Nontank Vessels1

ABSTRACT An issue of increasing concern worldwide is that of oil spills from nontank vessels that carry large quantities of petroleum product as fuel or lubricants. The New Carissa incident in Oregon in 1999 is only one of several that have impacted the U.S. West Coast in the last few years. Others include the M/V Kuroshima, which grounded in Dutch Harbor, Alaska in 1997, and the M/V Kure, which spilled oil in Humbolt Bay also in 1997. The Tenyo Maru was cut in half in a collision and sank with the loss of one life and a spill of at least 100,000 gallons of heavy fuel oil and diesel in Washington State in 1991. Additional examples of both spills and threats of spills are sited, both in the United States and worldwide. This paper examines a number of actions that have been taken in response to this threat. One such model is the Canadian requirement that vessel owner/operators demonstrate a formal agreement with an approved response contractor, and list that contractor in their Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP). A more comprehensive approach would be to establish approved “umbrella” contingency plans for major port areas, supported by contracts with oil spill removal organizations (OSROs). This preferred model has been adopted by the U.S. West Coast states, and affords the opportunity for the contracted responders to drill with emergency response officials, thus improving the likelihood of an efficient, coordinated spill response. This paper also proposes spill prevention design elements for nontank vessels.