Removal Of Chloride Ions Research Articles

Electrocapacitive removal of Na and Cd ions from contaminated aqueous solution using Fe3O4-poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) poly(styrene sulfonate) modified chitosan nanosheets

Chitosan nanosheets (NS) stabilized on poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene): poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT: PSS) was functionalized using Fe3O4 to capacitively remove chloride ions and toxic cadmium ions at optimized pH, concentration, and number of charging cycles. The synthesis procedure was investigated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-Ray Diffractometer (XRD), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), Scanning Electron Microscope – Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET). The analyses confirms increase in surface area of the nanocomposite from 41 to 132 m2/g and a decrease in crystallinity from 75.3 to 66.9% after nanosheet formation. The highest sorption exchange capacity (SEC) for this work, 93% CdCO3 removal is achieved at 100 CDI cycles while 82% NaCl removal was achieved at 80 cycles. The SEC% increased with pH during Na ion deionization and decreased with pH during Cd removal. The works shows that chitosan is able to impart advanced structural properties to Fe3O4 and PEDOT and is able to reduce reverse migration of ions from electrodes to bulk solution, leading to higher SEC performance.

Simultaneous precipitation removal of fluoride ion and chloride ion from smelting waste acid using renewable remover

Purification and reuse is a potential method of smelting waste acid disposal. High concentrations of fluoride and chloride in waste acid are harmful impurity and must be removed. Previous studies have shown that fluoride removal with rare earth and chloride removal with bismuth have similar cyclic process of "precipitation removal-agent regeneration" and similar reaction conditions. In this paper, a method of simultaneous precipitation removal of F− and Cl− from waste acid using La(OH)3 and Bi2O3 as a mixed remover was proposed, and the mixed remover is regenerated by sodium hydroxide solution for the recycling of the remover. Thermodynamic analysis of La3+-Bi3+-F−-Cl−-H2O system verified the feasibility of simultaneous removal. The experimental results showed that under the optimum reaction conditions, the removal efficiencies of F− and Cl− were 93.67 % and 96.47 %, respectively, and the concentrations of F− and Cl− in the solution after removal were 66.70 mg/L and 71.10 mg/L, respectively. Under the optimum conditions, the regeneration efficiencies of La(OH)3 and Bi2O3 were 96.80 % and 96.95 %, respectively. The proposed process has the advantages of no waste output, short process, and low energy consumption and provides an environmentally friendly method of removing fluoride and chloride from waste acid.

Simultaneous desalination and removal of organic pollutants in a novel bifunctional FCDI system: The enhancement by in-situ reutilization of chloride ions

A new system of flow electrode capacitive deionization coupled with in situ electro-oxidation (FCDI-EO) was constructed to achieve the degradation of organic pollutants while maintaining high desalination efficiency. The effects of different parameters of potential difference, electrolyte, and pH on the chloride removal performance of FCDI-EO and the removal performance of rhodamine B (RhB) were investigated. Under the optimal conditions of potential difference = 4 V, [Cl−] = 500 mg/L, and pH = 4, the removal of chloride ions, RhB and total organic carbon (TOC) was as high as 88.74 %, 99.02 %, and 87.82 %, respectively. The quenching experiments showed that hydroxyl radicals (OH) and reactive chlorine species (RCS) were involved in the FCDI-EO system. The liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis suggested the possible mineralization pathway of RhB. Furthermore, toxicity assessment analysis showed that the toxicity of the degradation intermediates of RhB decreased during the treatment. Overall, this study provides a promising process that reducing the generation of high-concentration saline water in desalination and in situ utilizing the Cl− gathered from the feed water. The findings of this study could provide useful guidance for the development of flow electrode capacitive deionization technology and organic pollutant control.

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A SIMPLE ELECTROCHEMICAL TREATMENT MODEL FOR SALINE WASTEWATERS: PART A

This paper investigated the performance of the electrochemical treatment technique in removing chloride from saline (salty) wastewaters (brine). Saline wastewaters (between 10 x 103 mg/l and 40 x 103 mg/l of chloride) were prepared and subjected to electrochemical treatment using developed carbon–resin (anode) and aluminium (cathode) electrodes. Electrochemical treatment of the simulated brine was conducted on a laboratory scale. The influence of selected factors on the performance of the electrochemical process was monitored using fractional factorial experiments. These selected factors were optimized using steepest descent technique (between the minimum and maximum concentrations) and rate change of chloride removal efficacy through Microsoft Excel Solver. The optimum values of these selected factors were used to purify typical raw saline water. Efficacies of the process in removing chloride ions from the typical raw saline water was used to predict efficacy of the system using typical chloride concentration in seawater based on literature and previous studies. The study revealed the relationship between chloride removal efficacy (%), initial concentration of chloride, current through the wastewater and separation distance between the electrodes were best in the form of exponentials with coefficient of determination of 0.979, 0.920 and 0.977, respectively. The optimum values of these selected factors such as current, pH, treatment period and separation distance between the electrode (centre to centre of the electrode) were 10.5 A equivalent to 0.795 A cm-2 , 6.7, 2.75 hr and 42mm, respectively. It was concluded that electrochemical treatment with carbon electrodes is an effective tool for removing chloride from saline wastewater during electrochemical treatment.

Computational approach to the current and chloride ions distribution of reinforced concrete cathodic protection system

A numerical method considering both corrosion kinetics and ion transport is proposed to investigate the distribution of current and chloride ions in a cathodic protection system. The impact of impressed current density, concrete resistivity, chloride ion concentration, rebar arrangement, anode arrangement and thickness of protective layer on the current and ion distribution is discussed. Results show that the rebars located closest to anode exhibit the largest current and lowest chloride ion concentration. The utilization of multiple external anodes proves to be an effective means to enhance the cathodic protection’s effect, but it impairs the ability of removing chloride ions.

Ultrasound-improved removal of chloride ions from coking circulating water by Friedel’s salt precipitation: Efficiency enhancement and mechanisms

The concentration of chloride ions should keep appropriate in the coking circulating water to prevent multiple detrimental effects on the environment. Even though Friedel’s salt precipitation is a practical and economically beneficial method to remove chloride, the chloride removal of traditional method is insufficient. A modified ultrasonic method for the removal of chloride by Friedel’s salt precipitation was proposed. A number of influential elements including the ratio of reagents, reaction time, pH, temperature, stirring speed, sulfate, and fluoride, were fully investigated. The results showed that sulfate and fluoride could inhibit the chloride removal through a competitive effect with chloride. With ultrasonic enhancement, the optimal removal efficiency of chloride ions was 87.20 %, compared to 82.17 % without ultrasonic enhancement. Additionally, the reaction time was shortened by 15 minutes utilizing ultrasonic. The cavitation and mechanical disruption effects of ultrasound conjunction with precipitation can improve the efficiency of chloride removal. This study provided a theoretical foundation of ultrasonic synergistic Friedel’s salt precipitation method for chloride removal, and offered guidance for the use of Friedel’s salt with enhanced techniques in other fields.

Green Alternatives for Archaeological Iron Stabilization

ABSTRACT One of the most challenging types of artifact occurring within museum collections is unstable chloride-contaminated archaeological iron. A high chloride concentration causes cracking, flaking and leads to full mineralization, in effect making objects fragile. Consequently, removal of chloride ions plays a key role in stabilization treatment, while preserving the integrity of the corroded iron object. Despite the variety of stabilization methods, all have significant disadvantages, including a lack of sustainability. Within the framework of the Horizon Europe project GoGreen the potential of microbial biosorption to stabilize archaeological iron artefacts is being investigated. Dry biomass of the fungi Meyerozyma sp. and Saccharomyces cerevisiae was studied to remove chloride ions. Preliminary tests were carried out on artificially-aged steel samples. To assess the activities of the microorganisms’ functional groups and biosorption capabilities as a potential green stabilization treatment, analytical techniques including FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, and SEM-EDX were used. The results demonstrate two promising paths for the development of green stabilization treatments based on fungal biomass: passive adsorption into the cell wall and conversion of reactive corrosion products into more stable compounds. The use of microbial biomass opens up promising perspectives for the development of more sustainable solutions in archaeological iron stabilization, while avoiding the generation of toxic waste in our environment.

Plasma-assisted preparation of NiCoAl-layered double hydroxides with alarge interlayer spacing on carbon cloth forelectrochemical deionization

Capacitive deionization has been considered an emerging desalination technique in recent years, especially for its economic and energy-saving characteristics for brackish water. However, there are currently few studies on chloride ion removal electrodes, and the slow desalination kinetics limits their development. Ar-NiCoAl- layered double hydroxide (LDH)@ACC materials with an increased interlayer spacing were prepared by the in-situ growth of NiCoAl-LDHs nanosheet arrays on acid-treated carbon cloth (ACC) and subsequent Ar plasma treatment. The carbon cloth suppresses the agglomeration of the NiCoAl-LDHs nanosheets and improves the electrical conductivity, while the plasma treatment increases the interlayer spacing of NiCoAl-LDHs and improves its hydrophilicity. This provides rapid diffusion channels and more interlayer active sites for chloride ions, achieving high desalination kinetics. A hybrid capacitive deionization (HCDI) cell was assembled using Ar-NiCoAl-LDHs@ACC as the chloride ion removal electrode and activated carbon as the sodium ion removal electrode. This HCDI cell achieved a high desalination capacity of 93.26 mg g−1 at 1.2 V in a 1000 mg L−1 NaCl solution, a remarkable desalination rate of 0.27 mg g−1 s−1, and a good charge efficiency of 0.97. The capacity retention remained above 85% after 100 cycles in a 300 mg L−1 NaCl solution at 0.8 V. The work provides new ideas for the controlled preparation of two-dimensional metal hydroxide materials with a large interlayer spacing and the design of high-performance electrochemical chlorine ion removal electrodes.

PDDA-modified nanoflower-like BiOCl/MXene hybrid electrode for efficient capacitive deionization dichlorination

Currently, chloride ions in industrial water limits its reuse when extending the circulating water cycle. Therefore, it is necessary to remove Cl− to ensure its effective reuse. Considering the development of new materials for efficient electrochemical chloride removal is a key issue limiting the development of capacitive deionization technology for chlorine removal. In this study, BiOCl was grown in situ on the surface of V-MXene, and then a nanoflower-like BiOCl/MXene composite was synthesized by utilizing the properties of MXene as a structure-directing agent to modulate the morphology, which exhibits superior pore structure and specific capacitance. The poly (diallyl dimethylammonium) (PDDA) modification improved the materials’ specific capacitance and reduced energy consumption for dichlorination. The optimal BMP-10 exhibited superior performance for dichlorination, the maximum dichlorination capacity and rate were 161.64 mg g−1 and 2.20 mg g−1 min−1. We found that MXene has excellent properties for exfoliation and morphology modulation of layered materials. Additionally, the electrical properties have an important influence on the electrochemical removal of chloride ions. Here we successfully synthesized an efficient electrode material with unique morphological structure for CDI dichlorination and provided ideas for structure-directing agents and electrical modulation in material design for electrochemical dichlorination.

Separation of Chloride and Sulfate Ions from Desulfurization Wastewater Using Monovalent Anions Selective Electrodialysis.

The high concentration of chloride ions in desulphurization wastewater is the primary limiting factor for its reusability. Monovalent anion selective electrodialysis (S-ED) enables the selective removal of chloride ions, thereby facilitating the reuse of desulfurization wastewater. In this study, different concentrations of NaCl and Na2SO4 were used to simulate different softened desulfurization wastewater. The effects of current density and NaCl and Na2SO4 concentration on ion flux, permselectivity (PSO42-Cl-) and specific energy consumption were studied. The results show that Selemion ASA membrane exhibits excellent permselectivity for Cl- and SO42-, with a significantly lower flux observed for SO42- compared to Cl-. Current density exerts a significant influence on ion flux; as the current density increases, the flux of SO42- also increases but at a lower rate than that of Cl-, resulting in an increase in permselectivity. When the current density reaches 25 mA/cm2, the permselectivity reaches a maximum of 50.4. The increase in NaCl concentration leads to a decrease in the SO42- flux; however, the permselectivity is reduced due to the elevated Cl-/SO42- ratio. The SO42- flux increases with the increase in Na2SO4 concentration, while the permselectivity increases with the decrease in Cl-/SO42- ratio.

Chloride leaching of eucalyptus wood particles by water for pellets production

The impacts of climate change caused by the consumption of fossil fuels have encouraged the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The use of forest biomass for the pellets production is an alternative for energy generation. However, the high chloride content present in this forest biomass has caused human health and economic problems, which are factors that restrict the export of pellets. The main objective of this work was to reduce the chloride content in eucalyptus wood intended to produce pellets, by leaching the particles with water. Different parts of the eucalyptus tree (bark, branches, leaves, heartwood and sapwood) were characterized, and the biomass stock was determined. The chloride content determination was carried out using the selective chloride electrode and ion chromatography methods. Leaching was performed using a water/wood ratio of 25, 50, 75 or 100 L kg−1. The higher heating value (HHV) of the bark (18.47 MJ/kg), branches (20.01 MJ/kg) and leaves (22.04 MJ/kg) met the requirements of ISO 17225–2. However, their ash (1.91–4.32 %) and chloride content (0.120–0.627 %) were above what is allowed by the standard. The sapwood showed a higher content of volatile matter, ash and holocellulose, while higher values of HHV, fixed carbon, lignin and extractives content were observed for the heartwood. The chloride content present in heartwood was lower than that of sapwood and did not meet the requirements for ISO 17225–2 (≤0.03 % for B and ≤ 0.02 % for A pellets). In general, particle leaching did not significantly affect the energetic properties of wood. Leaching the particles with the lowest water/wood ratio (25 L/kg) was sufficient to remove chloride ions and meet the requirements of ISO 17225–2.

Chloride ion sequestration by vetiver root biosorption: isotherm, kinetic, and thermodynamic analyses and ANN prediction

ABSTRACT The present research investigates the potential of activated vetiver root powder as a bioadsorbent for removing chloride ions from saline aqueous environments, especially relevant for addressing agricultural water scarcity. Factors such as pH, biomass dosage, contact duration, and initial salt ion concentration were examined. Thermodynamic analysis provided insights into the adsorption process, demonstrating the feasibility, non-spontaneous behavior, and exothermic nature of chloride ion adsorption onto activated vetiver root powder. The batch adsorption of chlorides adhered to the Langmuir equation and a pseudo-second-order kinetic model, demonstrating a monolayer adsorption capacity of 17.58 mg/g for activated vetiver powder. An artificial neural network (ANN) was used to develop a predictive model for estimating the percentage removal of chloride ions. The values of R2 and mean squared error were used to determine the predictive performance of the ANN. In the near term, prospective commercial uses of activated vetiver powder merit further investigation through in-depth research using real wastewater containing salinity-inducing ion.

Silver nanoparticles modified titanium carbide MXene composite for RSM-CCD optimised chloride removal from water

Unsafe levels of chloride in drinking water can make it unpalatable, susceptible to infrastructure corrosion and prone to heavy metals mobility. Conventional chloride mitigation strategies are subjected to inefficient performance and costly operation, necessitating innovations for more sustainable, affordable, and scalable technologies. In this study, silver nanoparticles-modified Ti3C2 MXene nanocomposite (AgMX) is synthesised via dry impregnation method for effective removal of chloride ion from water. The composite physicochemical properties were thoroughly characterised using various analytical techniques, including TEM, SEM, XRD, EDS, BET, zeta potential and pHpzc analysis. The experimental testing was optimised using CCD-RSM method in terms of adsorbent dosage (0.2–2 g/L), reaction time (1–17 min), and chloride concentration (10–90 mg/L). Under optimal conditions (adsorbent:1.55 g/L, time: 12.19 min, & concentration: 52.17 mg/L), a promising chloride removal of 91.8 % was achieved. Langmuir model showed the best fit to adsorption isotherm (R2: 0.9852) comparing to Freundlich and Dubinin-Kaganer-Radushkevich (DKR) isotherms, while pseudo-second-order kinetic model offered the closest data to the experimental results (R2: 9893) compared to the pseudo-first-order, Elovich and Intraparticle diffusion models R2: 0.2335,0.1212 and 0.2050, respectively. The composite reusability and regeneration potential after four repeated cycles were found practically efficient as ≥ 68 % and ≥ 84 %, respectively. The outcomes of this study can demonstrate the efficiency of the formulated composite as a promising material for the sustainable treatment of chloride-contaminated water.

Hybrid process combining electrocoagulation and electrodialysis for chloride ions removal from runoff water loaded with road de-icing salts: Statistical optimization by response surface methodology

The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of influential factors on separation of chloride ions from runoff water loaded with road de-icing salts (RRWs) using a hybrid process combining electrocoagulation (EC) and electrodialysis (ED). A concentration of 46.1 mg/L of aluminum ion was released in water while EC was performed at optimal condition (1 A and 4 min) by using aluminum anode. This step resulted in elimination of turbidity and suspended solid by 95 %, and the residual aluminum concentration of 0.01 mg/L was recorded in pretreated water. The supernatant water after settling tank and sand filtration was subjected to ED, where factorial and central composite design methodologies were applied to optimize road de-icing salts separation with minimum energy consumption. Overall, 32 experimental were designed and data points were validated using ANOVA software. The result showed flow rate and electrolysis time have a significant impact on separation factor giving a contribution of 40 % and 23 %, respectively. On the other hand, the percentage of limit current intensity and initial chloride concentration supplied 32 % and 50 % for the energy consumption, respectively. As for optimal point with highest separation and lowest energy consumption, it was found that treatment should be performed under 85 % of limit current intensity with a treatment time of 36 min at a flow rate of 10.9 mL/s. This condition led to achieve an average separation factor of 83 % and energy consumption value of 7.7 kWh/m3 for an initial chloride concentration of 1000 mg/L.

Citric acid-modified pineapple leaves (Ananas comossus) for nitrate and chloride ions removal

Industrial developments have provided both positive and negative impacts for the environment. The environmental pollution caused by industrial activities discharge toxic waste such as chloride and nitrate. Therefore, recent research employed pineapple leaves (Ananas comossus) as a cellulose-based material to remove chloride and nitrate ion in aqueous solution. The pineapple leaf powder was modified using citric acid to enhance its performance. The optimum conditions were achieved at pH 2, contact time 90 minutes, concentration 100 mg/L for chloride removal meanwhile the removal of nitrate reached the peak at pH 3, contact time 150 minutes, and concentration 50 mg/L for pineapple leaves before modification. After citric acid modification, the optimum point was reached at pH 5, contact time 120 minutes, concentration 100 ppm for chloride. For nitrate adsorption, the optimums condition was at pH 4, contact time 150 minutes, and concentration 50 mg/L. The adsorption capacity of both adsorbents did not significantly change after three times adsorption/desorption cycles. Adsorption of pineapple leaf before and after modification followed the Langmuir isotherm model for chloride and nitrate removal. The obtained adsorbents were characterized using Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Breuneur-Emmet-Teller (BET) indicating significant difference before and after adsorption onto pineapple leaves took place.

Direct and indirect oxidation removal of chloride ions from sulfuric acid wastewater using photoactivated PMS/PS: efficiency and mechanism

PMS and PS showed excellent performance in removing Cl(−i) as Cl2 from sulfuric acid wastewater under UV irradiation. Indirect oxidation via ·SO4− radicals played an essential role in removing Cl(−i).

Optimization of chloride ion removal from drinking water using graphene oxide modified with AgNO3 via CCD-based RSM method

Chloride (Cl−) is one of the pollutants that can cause significant health risks when its concentration is high in drinking water. Utilizing adsorption has a superiority in removing pollutants from water due to their large active surface area, small volume, and high adsorption capacity. Herin, graphene oxide (GO) modified with AgNO3 was used for Cl− removal. FESEM, EDAX, FTIR, zeta potential (ζ), and XRD analysis were employed for the characterization of synthesized adsorbent. The maximum Cl− removal (99.24 %) was achieved under optimized conditions by RSM based on CCD method (adsorbent dosage: 2 g/L, Cl− concentration: 30 mg/L, and reaction time: 17 min). The models of Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms were employed to determine the adsorption process. It was found that the Langmuir isotherm model with an R2 value of 0.9987 described the Cl−removal process appropriately. Finally, a comparison between the adsorbent's performance before and after modification with AgNO3 was made, demonstrating that the modified absorbent provided 87 % better efficiency than the unmodified adsorbent in the case of Cl−removal.

A Counterion-Free Strategy for Chronic Metabolic Acidosis Based on an Orally Administered Gut-Restricted Inorganic Adsorbent.

Chronic metabolic acidosis, arising as a complication of chronic kidney disease (CKD), not only reduces patients' quality of life but also aggravates renal impairment. The only available therapeutic modality, involving intravenous infusion of NaHCO3 , engenders undesirable sodium retention, thereby increasing hemodynamic load and seriously exacerbating the primary disease. This deleterious cascade extends to the development of cardiovascular diseases. Herein, an orally administered, gut-restricted inorganic adsorbent that can effectively alleviate chronic metabolic acidosis without causing any electrolytic derangement or superfluous cardiovascular strain is developed. The genesis of ABC-350 entails the engineering of bismuth subcarbonate via annealing, thereby yielding a partially β-Bi2 O3 -doped (BiO)2 CO3 biphasic crystalline structure framework enriched with atomic vacancies. ABC-350 can selectively remove chloride ions and protons from the gastrointestinal tract, mimicking the physiological response to gastric acid removal and resulting in increased serum bicarbonate. Owing to its gut-restricted nature, ABC-350 exhibits commendable biosafety, averting undue systemic exposure. In two rat models of metabolic acidosis, ABC-350 emerges not only as a potent mitigator of acidosis but also effects discernible amelioration concerning proximal tubular morphology, interstitial fibrosis, and the incendiary cascades incited by metabolic acidosis. ABC-350, as the translationally relevant material, provides a promising strategy for the treatment of metabolic acidosis.

Aplikasi Beads Komposit Chitosan – Clay Sebagai Adsorben dalam Penyerapan Ion Klorida (Cl-) Pada Air Payau

Water resources found in coastal areas and islands in terms of water quality are still relatively low, so treatment is necessary. Chitosan and clay are adsorbents that can be applied in various techniques to overcome environmental pollution. Chitosan is a natural adsorbent that has a high adsorption capacity but has low mechanical stability and is easily dissolved in an acidic medium. Clay is an adsorbent with a large specific surface area and has high mechanical stability. This research uses chitosan – clay beads, which aim to increase mechanical stability environmental resistance, and efficiency in brackish water treatment. It is located in Bandar Sungai Village, Sabak Auh District, Siak Regency. The research was conducted by varying the concentration of chitosan–clay beads (1:0), (1:0,25), (1:0,5), and (1:0,75) (w/w) to decrease the chloride ion (Cl-) in brackish water. The characterization of chitosan-clay beads with the water absorption test obtained the best results at the concentration variation (1:0), which was equal to 694,079%. The mechanical strength test obtained the best results at the concentration variation (1:0,75), which was 6,23 kgf. The characterization of chitosan-clay beads using SEM showed that the beads had larger pores. The results obtained show the best chloride ion removal efficiency (Cl-) of 90,828% with a final concentration of 113 mg/L at a concentration of chitosan – clay beads of (1:0.5) with a sampling time of 30 minutes. The research results have met the quality standards set by the Government Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia Number 22 of 2021 concerning the Implementation of Environmental Protection and Management.

Biochar Production and Demineralization Characteristics of Food Waste for Fuel Conversion.

The pyrolysis of food waste has high economic potential and produces several value-added products, such as gas, bio-oil, and biochar. In South Korea, biochar production from food waste is prohibited, because dioxins are generated during combustion caused by the chloride ions arising from the high salt content. This study is the first to examine the water quality and the applicability of food waste-based biochar as solid refuse fuel (SRF) based on a demineralization process. The calorific value increased after demineralization due to the removal of ionic substances and the high carbon content. The chloride ion removal rate after demineralization increased with the increasing pyrolysis temperature. A proximate analysis of biochar indicated that the volatile matter decreased, while ash and fixed carbon increased, with increasing pyrolysis temperature. At 300 °C pyrolysis temperature, all domestic bio-SRF standards were met. The organic matter concentration in water decreased with increasing carbonization temperature, and the concentrations of soluble harmful substances, such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), were within the standards or non-detectable. These results suggest that biochar can be efficiently generated from food waste while meeting the emission standards for chloride ions, dissolved VOCs, ash, and carbon.