Religious Schism Research Articles

Flip the narrative

As the United States approaches the 2024 presidential election, its citizens are experiencing extreme political and religious schism. Separation of church and state is no longer the mantra of the US population. Instead, declarations of which political candidate is “anointed” by God fill the airwaves as well as social media networks. Individuals on both sides of the schism are convinced they know and hear the voice of God and are convinced their favored candidate is the one ordained by God to be the next president of the United States. The confusion created by this rhetoric is intensified by declarations from both sides that democracy is at risk. This article strives to answer the question, “What is really at stake?”

The Economics of Missionary Colonialism: Evaluating the Church Missionary Society's Complicity in Dispossessing the Tsimshian of Metlakatla, 1882–1887

The 1882 religious schism in the mission village of Metlakatla, British Columbia, and the subsequent battle over land rights between the Tsimshian First Nations and settler governments, are some of the most extensively analysed events in the history of missions in nineteenth‐century Canada. Yet historians have overlooked the role played by the Church Missionary Society in perpetuating these events. Most importantly, historians have failed to ask why a society that was in financial difficulties and that regularly abandoned mission stations all over the world was so determined to hold on to this one station. The Society's official story was that it needed to protect its converts from persecution, but this article argues that two economic factors also contributed to the value of Metlakatla for the Society. First, competition with Methodist missionaries in the region made Metlakatla a valuable asset for attracting government grants and private donations. Second, the religious schism in Metlakatla undermined the Society's branding as a bastion of doctrinal purity, rendering it necessary to protect the Society's marketing strategy. Attending to these economic factors complicates simplistic narratives of imperial missionary work as only about Christianisation and civilisation, and contributes to ongoing efforts to understand missionary societies as corporations.

ZOROASTRIANISM: A SCHISM, TURAN'S SEPARATION FROM TENGRISM

The article is devoted to certain issues of the spread of Tengrism in Central Asia, the problem of religious schism, the separation of Zoroastrianism from the depths of Tengrism. The article focuses on the answers of Zarathushtra to the worldview questions of Bairi Akhun, it is shown that Zarathushtra in search of adherents of the new belief acts as the reformer, later this act was characterized by the prophetic co-religionists, his ten-year activity to promote his radically new ideas is perceived as heretical and schismatic. This led to the first religious war in ancient Turan. The composition of the participants in the battle for the belief, which took place on the southern outskirts of the Mary valley, was determined. On the basis of genetic data, the ethnic composition of the combatants was traced. It is concluded on the basis of the latest results of DNA studies of the inhabitants of the region that the Chionites, who, according to the conclusion of a number of leading historians, were Xiongnu, are actually proto-Xiongnu (Q). And this meant that since the Huns were Tengrians, the Chionites were early supporters of this belief. The religious war for belief was between the Tengrians and the Zoroastrians. It is concluded that Zarathushtra, who separated the new knowledge, came out of the depths of Tengrianism, observed some attributes of shamanism, was a Scythian by origin of an Asian branch of the R1a1a2b haplgroup.

The Transcendentalists and Their World by Robert A. Gross

Reviewed by: The Transcendentalists and Their World by Robert A. Gross Camden Burd (bio) Keywords Transcendentalism, Social history, Intellectual history, Concord, Massachusetts, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Community The Transcendentalists and Their World. By Robert A. Gross. (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2021. Pp. 864. Cloth, $40.00.) Robert Gross invites us back to Concord, Massachusetts in his latest work, The Transcendentalists and Their World. The title should sound familiar. It echoes his similarly named and Bancroft Prize-winning work, The Minutemen and Their World, published in 1976.1 In many ways, the book feels like a sequel. The Transcendentalists and Their World bears the hallmarks of new social history (rebuilding community profiles, outlining the divisions among group members, tracking ideas, economic shifts, cultural influences, generational change). Gross even notes that the work "began as an investigation into how the close world of the Minutemen, with its communal ethic and its inclusive institutions, gave way to the individualistic society of the Transcendentalists" (xx). The book links local happenings to this broader intellectual movement by arguing that broader social transformations were already underway by the time Emerson and Thoreau began their scribbling in Concord. Through painstaking research, Gross tracks a fracturing community in order to better [End Page 670] understand how, and why, Transcendentalism took root in this New England village. In order to understand the Transcendentalists, Gross argues that we must understand Concord in the decades leading up to 1830s. In doing so, we discover a village brewing with the cultural, social, economic, political, and intellectual milieu that would eventually develop into a movement. By 1825, villagers closed the door on the old-style political presumptions of the Federalists and embraced the new democratizing spirit of republicanism. The momentary pause in political strife was replaced with religious schism as the long-standing First Parish Church experienced a wave of dissent from congregants seeking a more conservative approach to worship. Communal bonds continued to break away as the industrial revolution and the market economy chipped away at long-standing social norms. Roads and railroads connected Concord to larger markets. Commercial agricultural, industrialization, and professional specialization—the hallmarks of the burgeoning capitalist economy—all took root in Concord during the 1820s. Forests fell; creeks and rivers were dammed; debt and distrust bloomed. Ideas also spread on commercial networks. School reform, the temperance movement, and Anti-Masonry all found a welcome audience in Concord whose residents came to embrace the promise of individualism and self-improvement. The Concord of the early nineteenth century was a village questioning traditionalism, transformed by the marketplace, and immersed in new ideas about politics, education, and the individual. Ralph Waldo Emerson arrived in Concord at a time when the community seemed to be fracturing under pressure from these new commercial and social forces. He, himself, was looking for change. Like many around him, Emerson was growing disinterested with traditional religious philosophy and soon took interest in the Transcendental reform movements that spread within the ranks of Unitarian clergy. Concord was an ideal place for him to evaluate New England and track its anxieties—all while finding a ready market for his ideas in nearby Boston. "Concord did not make Emerson a Transcendentalist," Gross makes sure to clarify, "but if afforded ample resources with which to illustrate and apply his observations of New England life" (385–86). His essay and speeches on education, individualism, and self-reliance were infused with inspiration from local debates. Though the origins of his new philosophy could be traced to German roots, Emerson's version of Transcendentalism was deeply local—reflecting a community at the crossroads of change in the second [End Page 671] quarter of the nineteenth century. Perhaps less surprisingly, Gross tracks the local influences of Henry David Thoreau's ideas. "The civic spirit and religious vision that Puritans had bequeathed to the Minutemen and thence to the leaders of Concord in the new republic were the seedbed in which the native's son vision of ecology of germinated" (608). Even Thoreau's conception of nature, a proto-ecological philosophy for man and the natural world, was the culmination of experiences with local environments, community residents, and cultural processes. In Gross's retelling...

Partition of the Indian Subcontinent and its Attending Problems: An Analytical Study

The partition of the Indian subcontinent denotes the consequential bifurcation of British India into two autonomous nations, India and Pakistan, during the pivotal year of 1947. This historical partition stands as a seminal juncture, eliciting profound ramifications encompassing both advantageous and detrimental dimensions. The intricate process of partition was intertwined with a constellation of attendant predicaments, such as religious schisms, extensive population migrations and dislocations, intercommunal upheaval, and territorial disputes, several of which endure as persistent influences exerting their impact upon the region's contemporary trajectory.

London Yearly Meeting’s Response to the Richmond Declaration, 1887: A Case Study in the Avoidance of Religious Schism

London Yearly Meeting’s response to the Richmond Declaration of 1887 was neutral in that it neither endorsed nor rejected it. The Declaration was seen by British Friends in a variety of ways. These included it being viewed as either an affirmation or not of existing Quaker beliefs, a document that was more relevant to the American Quaker context, a useful statement of beliefs or an attempt to impose a creed. While failure to accept the Declaration has been interpreted as a move towards supporting an emerging liberal Quakerism, the decision to also not reject it has often been overlooked. An evaluation of the discussions about the Declaration that took place at the Yearly Meeting in London, May 1888, and which were reported in the Quaker journals The British Friend and The Friend (London), highlights the wide range of views that were held. It is proposed that the complex set of relationships that existed between different groups within London Yearly Meeting and the role played by key individuals determined a nuanced response to the Declaration which was sufficiently acceptable to all sides. Paradoxically, this unity was founded upon a collective acceptance of theological discordance within London Yearly Meeting. Consequently, schism was avoided as evangelical, conservative and liberal Quaker narratives were able to coexist alongside a non-committal response to the Declaration.

“Home Resources”

ABSTRACT The case of Springfield and Upper Darby, two predominately Quaker townships in Chester County, Pennsylvania, in the late 1700s and early 1800s, shows how transitions to capitalism in the nineteenth century were rarely uniform. The townships persisted in maintaining subsistence characteristics even as other parts of southeastern Pennsylvania were transitioning to capitalist accumulation and urbanization. The principal mediums for this resistance were geographical and religious. However, by the 1820s, the introduction of mill technology eroded geographical resistance and encouraged the outmigration of entrepreneurs to urban environments. Also, a religious schism within the Quakers and the lure of evangelical Protestant sects undermined the religious cohesion of the townships. Springfield and Upper Darby transformed themselves into commercial farm communities with significant industrial components that “tethered” them to distant markets, and in which Quakerism ceased to serve the dominant religious worldview.

The scars of religious war in histories of French cities (1600–1750)

Abstract This article explores the memory of France’s Wars of Religion in urban histories published during the century and a half that followed the restoration of peace with the Edict of Nantes in 1598. It asks why, despite explicit prohibitions against reviving memories of injuries suffered during the wars, local historians persisted in demonizing former opponents in histories that remained overtly confessional in their representation of the troubles. The article focuses on Catholic authors, who wrote fifty-six of the fifty-eight works examined. Protestants had little incentive to memorialize the towns in which they had a limited and declining position. Catholics, by contrast, mobilized memory to reaffirm a local identity rooted in Catholic practice and belief. Retelling the suffering local populations endured and recounting the city’s ritual responses to the religious schism, they pushed Protestants to the margins of a civic culture represented as inherently Catholic even in a bi-confessional state.

The Appeal of German Mysticism to Religious Dissenters in Sixteenth-Century Germany: Mystical Books and the Life Stories of Their Readers

ABSTRACT This essay discusses the relationship between the reception of mystical texts and the life stories of their readers: What circumstances motivated individuals or groups to seek out mystical literature? How did these texts impact their readers’ future life trajectories? Well-researched examples are found in the early years of the Wittenberg Reformation. Luther discovered the texts of German mysticism, Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt reflected the need for detachment from religious, social and family ties using the category of Gelassenheit. Social homelessness was not only a problem of Protestant dissenters, but also for Catholic minorities. For example, Wilhelm Listemann, Benedictine prior in Thuringia, had to go into exile when his monastery was secularized in 1525. In this situation he acquired the sermons of Johannes Tauler. A long term effect of the religious schism was the formation of new alliances between Protestant and Catholic dissenters discovering mystical literature as a common ecumenical resource.

Liturgical Commemorations, Political Dissent and Religious Schism in the Russian Orthodox Church during the 1920s and 1930s

Abstract In the early Soviet period, the long Christian tradition of praying for secular and ecclesiastical rulers played an important role in Orthodox debates over legitimate authority, especially after the death of Patriarch Tikhon (Bellavin, 1865–1925) in March 1925. When Metropolitan Sergii (Stragorodskii, 1867–1944), the acting leader of the patriarchal church, ordered the liturgical commemoration of the atheistic Soviet government as the secular authority and himself as the ecclesiastical authority in October 1927, he immediately provoked strong resistance from a group of hierarchs, clergy and laypersons in Leningrad. Because this opposition was expressed publicly at worship services, the Bolsheviks considered it a form of anti-Soviet agitation. For Orthodox believers, however, commemoration represented an ecclesiastical rather than a secular question. Sergii himself resisted Soviet pressure to stop commemorating his own superior, the imprisoned Metropolitan Petr (Polianskii, 1862–1937). Despite the bitter divisions among the followers of Patriarch Tikhon in the decade that followed his death, both Sergii and his opponents both prayed for Petr – a fragile thread that united the church’s contending factions.

Sasenarine PersaudMonsoon on the Fingers of God

Books in Review full of pity for the killed creature. Arnar is a wonderful hero to follow as he maneuvers to win over Eir and acquire a farm of his own. The latter dream is fulfilled when he trades his stockpiled driftwood in exchange for a farm. Bergfinn, its owner, needs a seagoing ship to save his large household from death by starvation. Bergfinn’s enterprise is doomed, however. The sea goddess Ran smiles with white teeth as his primitive ark sinks in the cold, raging sea. Nature’s ways of revenge are terrible, but people can match each one, death for death. Arnar, for one, is the target of too much envy and resentment, driven by tribal hatred and religious schism, to be the savior he might have become. Somehow, it feels only too plausible. Everything in this remarkable book has the ring of truth. Anna Paterson Aberdeenshire, United Kingdom Sasenarine Persaud Monsoon on the Fingers of God Toronto, Ontario. Mawenzi House. 2018. 112 pages. Reading Sasenarine Persaud’s newest collection , Monsoon on the Fingers of God, is like stepping inside a clock and running a thumb along each gear and dial in order to better understand time. These poems open with tenderness, as petals unfurl after rain—a rain that finds the speaker everywhere , from Hadrian’s Wall to the internet, gathering pieces of myth and history from all corners of the world to stage an inquiry into identity, language, and empire. With the 2014 Scottish Referendum as an impetus, Persaud calls upon both Lord and Lady Macbeth alongside “SheshaNarayana / serpent god and serpent king kundalini / keeper and guardian,” finding common ground within the fraught history between India and England, Scotland and England: We will never make it to India, you say we are different—our heart is painted Gaelic and yours Britannic, our liver Scoti, yours Sanskrit we know the bile of a thousand years. Muslims dreaming of Mecca—except when we touch arms and our eyes sing: never let me go, never let me go. Readers never know, leaping from one poem to the next, in which century they might end up, speaking what language in what poetic form, to whose deity. Yet what prevails in each moment is the tenderness that is Persaud’s perspective, whether Suzanne Dracius The Dancing Other Trans. Nancy Naomi Carlson & Catherine Maigret Kellogg. Calcutta. Seagull Books. 2018. 256 pages. Who am I? And who are you? Suzanne Dracius explores identity in her recently translated novel, The Dancing Other. First published in French as L’autre qui danse (1989), the book enlarges the individual story of a woman named Rehvana into the universal search for belonging. Dracius employs culture, race, and gender to deconstruct love. Like the author, protagonist Rehvana grew up in Paris but was born in Martinique . Harking back to a colonial past, this eastern Caribbean island is one of France’s eighteen regions, making its residents full French citizens. Hence, decisions affecting them occur over four thousand miles away. No wonder ethnic, class, and economic tensions there are deep-seated. Dracius foreshadows her narrative with two apt epigrams, one by Cuban poet Nicolás Guillén and the other by French poet Arthur Rimbaud. The prologue is a monologue— a two-page “Promonologue” that Rehvana hallucinates while fleeing the rituals of an African sect in Paris conducted by a man she loves named Abdoulaye. Jérémie rescues her, offering protection and love, which Rehvana rejects when she meets Enryck. Feeling alienated in Paris, Rehvana moves back to Martinique with Enryck, thinking a return to her roots will recover her self. The island’s beauty and Creole food help, but its dogma of male domination turns a blind eye to Enryck’s domestic violence—for he and his pal Chabin are macho men. Even her kindly neighbor, Ma Cidalise, is no help. Proud she’s been beaten much worse, Ma tells Rehvana: “You got to harden your body.” To complicate matters, Rehvana realizes she’s pregnant with Jérémie’s baby. Dracius paints a different Martinique than artist Paul Gauguin in his scenes of this windward island. Gauguin’s canvases exhibit no intimate-partner violence, but Dracius...

Становление официальной доктрины религиозного раскола Русской православной церкви в трудах В. Н. Татищева

Становление официальной доктрины религиозного раскола Русской православной церкви в трудах В. Н. Татищева

Our Lady of Ipswich: devotion, dissonance, and the agitation of memory at a forgotten pilgrimage site

AbstractThis article traces the social life of Our Lady of Ipswich, a statue taken to be destroyed during the English Reformation, and the possibility of pilgrimage in the context of dramatic urban change and loss of place memory. Arguing that iconoclasm is not an end‐point, we see that the life of the image is not extinguished on the pyre, but is set into motion by conflict surrounding its significance, efficacy, and survival. Indeed, it is not simply the act of iconoclasm that animates the statue; rather, such agonistic animation is an ongoing process which involves both those who reject and those who are devoted to the image. My argument is that the potency of contemporary images of Our Lady of Ipswich relies on an active cultivation of dissonance: the consciousness of religious schism; the disjuncture between Ipswich's historical importance and the perceived failures of twentieth‐century development; and the juxtaposition between devotional pilgrimage destination and disenchanted shopping space.

Mezhepsel Bölünme ve Çeşitliliklerin Kurumsal ve İktisadi Belirleyicileri

In this paper we present an economic approach contributing to the explanation of religious schism, a topic mostly dealt with in the fields of sociology and psychology so far. The main idea is to see religious groups as networks. These networks may serve as a device for exchanging information about and via other members. A modernizing economy is characterized by an increasing number of transactions with an increasing number of partners, leading to increasing transaction costs. It might be profitable for groups to split up in this economic environment in order to economize on these transaction costs. In our view, religious movements with stricter enforcement of their behavioural norms are growing in size, while such with rather liberal attitudes toward their norm enforcement face a loss of members. Historical and empirical results supporting our line of argument are presented. We find that the level of income and education attainment increase the fractionalization ratio in the states. Another interesting point in our empirical results regarding population size is that the number of entrepreneurs is positively correlated with the fractionalization ratio. The number of employees gives a negative coefficient, implying that this group prefers to be part of bigger groups due to their conformist behaviour.

From ‘Alī to Dante’s «Alì»: A Western Medieval Understanding of «Shī'a»

This paper focuses on the figure of Ali, found along with Maometto and sowers of scandal and schism in Dante’s Divina Commedia (Inferno 28). While early commentators on the poem variously identify Ali as a companion or disciple of Maometto’s, or his heretical teacher, modern commentators identify him as ‘Alī b. Abī Ṭālib, Muḥammad’s cousin and son-in-law. Both explain his condemnation as due to a religious schism he caused: according to the former, Ali inspired or pursued the division of Christianity provoked by Maometto; according to the latter, he was responsible for the division of the Muslim community into Sunnites and Shi‘ites. Nevertheless, these interpretations do not clarify why Ali is not condemned by Dante along with heresiarchs but rather alongside characters responsible for violent divisions within social and political contexts. An analysis of the sources on ‘Alī and the Shī‘a available in Europe up to the beginning of the 14th century shows that Dante, unlike his early commentators, relied on pseudo-historical biographies of Muḥammad in which the division between Sunnites and Shi‘ites, ascribed to ‘Alī, was interpreted as a political phenomenon concerning the dispute over authority and territorial control between Sunni Caliphs in the East and Shi‘i imams in the West. By reading Inferno 28 from this perspective, through the social and political view expressed by Dante in the Monarchia, it is possible to infer that Dante considered Muḥammad as responsible for the subversion of the universal empire, and ‘Alī as responsible for a further fragmentation of the imperial authority.

Following Father Chiniquy: Immigration, Religious Schism, and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century Illinois

Review of: Following Father Chiniquy: Immigration, Religious Schism, and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century Illinois, by Caroline Brettell.

РУССКАЯ РЕВОЛЮЦИЯ 1917 ГОДА КАК КУЛЬТУРНЫЙ ФЕНОМЕН

The article discusses the main features of the Russian revolution of 1917 as a reflection of the crisis of the Russian culture. The author believes that the spiritual and cultural causes that led Russia into the revolution of 1917 were unique and purely Russian, and they, in the final analysis, provoked the revolution. The Russian revolution became possible only because the everyday life of people lacked traditional life foundations, as they had been shattered by nihilism. Nihilistic outlook first captured the intelligentsia and then the whole nation. The article substantiates the conclusion that the tragic experience of the Russian revolution of 1917 has shown it is necessary to make all political, social and cultural forces of the country be aware of the lessons of those historic events. And the most important of those lessons is: to cherish national historical memory, to value the spiritual culture of the people, to strengthen the moral foundations of the society without allowing religious schisms and disasters.

Dante, Riccobaldo and Empire

Dante, Riccobaldo and Empire William Caferro Scholars have long stressed the centrality of empire to Dante’s political theology. Charles Till Davis devoted much of his brilliant career to elucidating the details of what he famously called Dante’s “idea of Rome,” tracing the poet’s evolving views on empire in Convivio, Monarchia and the Commedia. The Romans were a chosen people, chosen by God for world rule on account of their nobility and justice, made manifest by their deeds in war and divine miracles. Empire represented an authority that directed all other authorities. It regulated the civil order (human civiltas) and restrained avarice, which was its greatest adversary. The divine choice of Rome specifically negated the claims to secular rule of the papacy. Empire existed prior to the church. It was indivisible and only its exercise by the Romans, and Emperor Henry VII (1310–1313) in Dante’s lifetime, could bring about the peace that the poet so desired.1 The Monarchia represents Dante’s lengthiest and most detailed discussion of empire. It was written in Latin and intended, as Charles Till Davis argues, for a “highbrow” audience.2 A more succinct treatment of empire is in the sixth canto of Paradiso. Here the Byzantine ruler Justinian, who brought empire and its imperial symbol, the Eagle, back west from the “bounds of Europe” (Constantinople), tells the history of the Roman empire, highlighting the proper relationship between the emperor, who ruled the world, and the pope, who addressed religious issues. Justinian represents the ideal figure of the Roman emperor for Dante. He brought divine justice to the earthly realm through codification of Roman law, transposing in the process the heavenly model of a single, indivisible and universal imperium to the earthly sphere. [End Page 136] Dante’s treatment of empire was part of an extensive contemporary discourse. The historian Robert Folz called the years “from 1270 to the early fourteenth century”—corresponding roughly to Dante’s lifetime—a period of “intense discussion” of empire.3 Joseph Canning described the era as the “most productive and profound” of the whole Middle Ages in terms of the publication of lengthy treatises on political thought.4 Surprisingly little is known, however, of the details of this discourse. Scholars have too often focused on the same handful of writers: the hierocrats on the one hand, who favored papal power; and their anti-papal opponents on the other, who argued on behalf of monarchical power.5 Political theorists highlight the competing papal and imperial claims in a wholly western framework and typically situate Dante’s views in terms of immediate historical antecedents such as the struggle between King Philip IV of France and Pope Boniface VIII, and noteworthy subsequent events such as the contest between Emperor Louis of Bavaria and Pope John XXII and the writings of Marsiglio of Padua (1275–1342). For Dante’s contemporaries, however, the discussion of empire included consideration not only of competing papal and imperial claims, but also of Byzantine Greek imperial claims and concerns about the division of empire east and west.6 The problem was brought to the forefront in Dante’s day by the recapture in 1261 of Constantinople by the Byzantine Emperor Michael Paleologus and by the Council of Lyon (1274), which attempted to heal both the religious schism with Byzantium and the division of empire.7 The discourse on empire was more complex and contested than historians have presented it. Numerous contemporary works and treatises have yet to receive careful scholarly attention. The aim of this essay is to examine Dante’s views on the subject in the terms of those of Riccobaldo of Ferrara (1245–1318). Riccobaldo’s Compilatio Chronologica, written in 1313, and Compendium Romanae Historiae, written in 1317/18, both deal with empire but have received scant attention. A close reading of Dante’s Monarchia and Paradiso 6 alongside Compilatio and Compendium reveals crucial divergences, particularly with regard to the figures of Charlemagne and Justinian, which shed light on Dante’s “idea of Rome.” I will argue that Dante deliberately constructs imperium in a wholly western framework, avoiding the issue of Greek Byzantium and subverting in the process the traditional roles afforded...

Liberty, Conscience & Toleration: The Political Thought of William Penn by Andrew R. Murphy

Reviewed by: Liberty, Conscience & Toleration: The Political Thought of William Penn by Andrew R. Murphy J. William Frost Liberty, Conscience & Toleration: The Political Thought of William Penn. By Andrew R. Murphy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016. xiii + 301 pp. Notes, bibliography, and index. $74. Murphy, author of Conscience and Community: Revisiting Toleration and Religious Dissent in Early Modern England and America (2006) and an edition of Penn’s political works, has now written an in-depth study of Penn’s political theories. He argues that, like John Locke’s famous essay on religious toleration, Penn’s writings were a response to specific events and are important not because of originality but because both men summarized and popularized major themes. Agreeing with Mary Dunn’s William Penn, Politics and Conscience (1967), Murphy insists that working for toleration or liberty of conscience remained a constant feature of Penn’s life. The book focuses on Penn’s response to the II Conventicle Act, Bushel’s [End Page 30] Case, the Popish plot and Exclusion Crisis, the founding and early history of Pennsylvania, and James II’s attempt to guarantee toleration through the suspending power and then by act of Parliament. Murphy has mastered the secondary literature on each of these subjects and his analysis provides new insights. For example, in Bushel’s Case Penn sought for the jury to determine both fact and law and his actions were a kind of performance theater that made him a national figure. Penn consistently defended religious liberty for Roman Catholic individuals, but opposed “popery” that he defined as an attempt by Rome or the Church of England to merge ecclesiastical and state power and to force worship. For Britain, Penn advocated toleration – that is, no disestablishment of the Church of England and freedom for public worship. In Pennsylvania, the law guaranteed freedom of worship, ignored tithes or any taxes for churches, required strict enforcement for morality, and supported Quaker beliefs on marriage, oaths, and peace. Freedom to error in religious belief did not allow liberty for a licentiousness that threatened civic interest in either Britain or Pennsylvania. Depending on circumstances, Penn emphasized a variety of reasons for toleration: Christianity (Jesus’ kingdom was spiritual and the early church did not persecute), English history (Magna Carta, Great Charter, and common law), human nature (conscience cannot be coerced), economics (property rights and dissenters’ hard work strengthened the realm), and pragmatism (persecution did not work). Opponents of toleration agreed that conscience could not be forced but feared spiritual anarchy as leading to another Puritan revolution, undermining political unity, and strengthening Catholicism. Murphy’s careful analysis of Penn’s writings and use of examples from early Pennsylvania to illustrate the difficulties implementing theories should appeal to political scientists – the book’s intended audience. Those primarily interested in Quaker history may be dissatisfied. The book does not discuss Quaker writings on religious freedom before Penn or comment on how he might have changed Friends’ emphases or tactics. Also ignored is the influence of Penn’s study at Saumur where he encountered a moderate Calvinist defense of religious toleration and saw the actual practice of harmony between Catholics and Protestants. Penn’s defense of property rights could have been juxtaposed against the Quaker refusal to pay tithes and disputes over impropriated tithes. There are no meeting minutes cited and the only personal papers are the microfilmed Penn Papers. Except for Fox’s Journal, Barclay’s Apology, and several [End Page 31] works by George Keith, Penn exists in isolation from other Friends, except in Pennsylvania. Here are the kinds of issues that more concentration on Penn’s Quakerism would have brought to Murphy’s political focus. In 1681–82 as Penn sought settlers and drafted Frames of Government, he published A Brief Examination and State of Liberty Spiritual and the revised edition of No Cross, No Crown. Why should historians assume that these were directed only to Quakers in England and not to prospective settlers? Penn knew the disruptive effects of religious schism. If Pennsylvania were to become a harmonious civil society populated by Quakers, then Penn needed to stop religious disputes, build deference to spiritual and political leaders, and foster moral...

Caroline B. Brettell.Following Father Chiniquy: Immigration, Religious Schism, and Social Changes in Nineteenth-Century Illinois.

Caroline B. Brettell.<i>Following Father Chiniquy: Immigration, Religious Schism, and Social Changes in Nineteenth-Century Illinois</i>.