Religious Fervor Research Articles

Final Report of the Proceedings of Euro-Arab Arbitration Iii

In the course of three Congresses we have examined the arbitration regulations for settling disputes arising from the cornmercial relations of two worlds which have been in contact from time immemorial, yet do not know each other very well. They are two very different worlds. There is, first and foremost, an encounter between two great cultural areas, each with its own pronounced character, where modernity and tradition; moving at different speeds, vie with unequal arms for ascendancy. The Arab world in particular has a cultural shape which cannot be adapted to a foreign mould. There is also the encounter of two great areas which were already in contact but which until quite recently were linked by political relationships of a hierarchical nature. This is still reflected in the tendency of one to imitate the other's model. And lastly there is the encounter of two great areas which have realized that arbitration now stands ready and waiting to help them overcome difficulties and preserve confidence within their combined world of exchanges and co-operation. Confzdence. This is perhaps the key word. A sacred verse declares: Do justice. This is the act which comes closest to religious fervour. Justice is like an act of faith. So is arbitration. During the Helsinki Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe, continued in Madrid and Paris, the participants focused all their skills on devising confidence-building measures. Perhaps that is our task as well. We are recommending legislations which are more harmonious and especially more generous towards the autonomy of international arbitration. And, to maintain a lively hope, we are advocating a form of arbitration in which the composition of the tribunal, its seat, the applicable law, the language, even if they in themselves do not suffice to inspire confidence, at least do not provoke distrust. Thus we hope gradually to disarm the distrust latent in national judiciaries and legislatures. On opening this Congress, President Bellet gave a vivid account of the stages already traversed. Our two worlds are naturally reaching out for each other with what they are and with what they have. It seems to me that what first leapt to their attention was the barriers-existing in the mind even before existing in the laws which face arbitration in certain countries, the result of sometimes bitter experiences. The question of what

Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society and Politics in Colonial America

This book is concerned with religious activity in 18th century America. Contrary to most views, Bonomi shows that religion became if anything more pervasive in American society in this century. This was partly due to the religious fervour of the Great Awakening, but even more to the centrality in American life that established religion maintained through the Revolution. Professor Bonomi focuses not only on religious issues and ideas, but on the careers and daily routines of clergy and the composition and attitudes of their congregations.

Spirituals or Revival Hymns of the Jamaica Negro

ne of the first of several different types of songs which impressed themselves on me after my arrival in Jamaica was the spiritual or revival hymn, as it is known there, for the reason that religious meetings are held practically nightly. Indeed, more than one such meeting may be held at the same time in a given locality by the established churches as well as by the various sects, like the Pentecosts, the Bedwardites, or others that are more local or confined to a single small group. The fact is almost too well known to require mention here that the emotional cravings of the negro, occasioned by religious fervor or causing it, are not wholly satisfied by the more restrained services of the various established denominations. The Baptist and Methodist churches draw a far greater number of worshippers than the others because of the greater scope for emotional expression allowed in their services, while the Episcopal church, even with its ritual and vested choir, does not make as great an appeal. Nevertheless, even the Baptist and Methodist forms do not meet the needs of many of the people, who have either entirely withdrawn to create new sects under their own leaders, or who supplement the church services with gatherings which allow the congregation greater freedom. One of the favorite pastimes of the negro is singing, the louder and the more heartfelt, the better. Moody and Sankey hymns, and countless others used in so-called revival meetings of the missionaries, are sung with great enthusiasm and retained in spirit if not in letter, where songs from the Episcopal and Presbyterian hymnals are seldom heard. The former become the patterns for many a native invention as well. As has already been intimated, a great number of sects of all degrees of prominence and influence, as well as size of membership, exist in the

US 4,704,424 antiblocking agent for ldpe film

Women's participation in the world of confraternities has intensified considerably in recent decades. The increasing visibility of women in these public expressions of religious fervour continues to arouse curiosity, at the very least, and is still regarded by the media as being newsworthy. In the Galician town of Ferrol, the process of women's incorporation into the local confraternities is singular in that although it has been slow and gradual, it has never been perceived as something unusual or exceptional. Although not always straightforward, the transition has been accepted as normal and its progress has been steady and unhindered, without causing any ruptures or requiring the need for diocesan intermediaries, unlike the case of other Spanish Holy Week processions. The aim of this article is to attempt to explain the historical and social circumstances that have facilitated the integration of women in the world of confraternities in Ferrol.

Bread and Roses

The Presidential Address Bread and Roses by Lois R. Kuznets Friends and fellow lovers of children's literature, the title of my talk today 1s Bread and Roses. For those of you to whom that phrase 1s as yet unknown, I hope to make clear not only why I am using 1t here, but also Its fame, or notoriety (depending on your point of view) 1n American history 1n general, as well as labor history. As you shall see, given the standard curriculum , you are unlikely to have learned about Bread and Roses 1n school. Presidential addresses usually begin with either a funny or an Inspirational story. While priding myself on a certain wry sense of humor and, moreover, being known to utter strangers 1n movie theaters for my loud vulgar laugh at Inappropriate moments, I, nevertheless, am going to begin with a true and Inspirational story rather than a joke. This story 1s told admirably by Milton Meltzer, one of the best known writers of nonfiction for children. I will be quoting liberally from his book, which Hke most of Meltzer' s works, 1s written for both adults and children. The story begins on Friday, January 12, 1912, when the workers—men, women and children—struck the textile mills 1n Lawrence, Massachusetts—a town 1n which no stockholder 1n these mills could bear to Uve. As Meltzer notes, although the conditions 1n the mills were ghastly and the wages already Incredibly low, "The Immediate cause of the strike was a wage cut." He continues, A state law had just been passed reducing the hours of women and children from 56 to 54 a week. The employers had strongly opposed 1t because over half of the 40,000 workers 1n the woolen and cotton mills were 1n these categories. Now they cut wages proportionately, and at the same time speeded up the machines so that for 54 hours at 54 hours' pay they got the same output they used to get 1n 56 hours at 56 hours' pay. (173) The Industrial Workers of the World, known familiarly as the WobbHes, was the union to organize this strike. The WobbHes were known for organizing not just the craft workers, but workers 1n all Industrial categories, skilled and unskilled; they spoke to the many Immigrants 1n their own original languages. This Important feature of the strike managed to create 1n the strikers an almost religious fervor. Ray Stannard Baker, a famous muckraker, reported on this aspect of the strike: It 1s the first strike I ever saw which sang. I shall not soon forget the curious 11ft, the strange sudden fire of the mingled nationalities at the strike meetings when they broke Into the universal language of song. And not only at the meetings did they sing, but at the soup houses and 1n the streets. (IBl) This strike was clearly a family affair, but food and fuel for the New England winter were scarce. Eventually the strikers adopted a European method—sendl ng their children to be cared for by strike supporters In other cities. This move finally led to one of the strikebreakers ' most outrageous acts, described by another observer of that time, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn: On February 24, a group of 40 strikers' children were to go from Lawrence to Philadelphia. ... At the railroad station In Lawrence, where the children were assembled, accompanied by their fathers and mothers . . . they were surrounded by police. . . . Children were clubbed and torn away from their parents and a wild scene of brutal disorder took place. Thirty-five frantic women and children were arrested, thrown screaming and fighting Into patrol wagons. They were beaten Into submission and taken to the police station. There the women were charged with "neglect" and Improper guardianship and ten frightened children were taken to the Lawrence Poor Farm. . . . Members of the Philadelphia Committee were arrested and fined. (184) This shocking story has a happy ending. Threatened congressional Investigation of this Incident forced the hand of the textile Industry; by March 12, the mills began to give In to the workers' demands—which were modest Indeed—except In their wonderful expression on a banner carried on the picket line by...

THE RULE OF MISRECOGNITION IN THE HART OF JURISPRUDENCE

The hallmark of liberalism is a secularized earnestness. Having drowned the heavenly ecstasies of religious fervour, of chivalrous enthusiasm-and even of philistine sentimentalism-in the icy waters of analytical scrutiny, the liberal philosophers had to introduce a new tone of public discourse to match their substantive outlook. Just as liberalism had overall been a salutary response to what had preceded it, so its characteristic tone would improve upon the tenor of discourse that had prevailed under the ancien regime. Christianity had been pessimistic, murderously intolerant, fanatical, and dogmatic; liberalism would hence be optimistic, generously open-minded, cool-headed, and responsive to rational persuasion. Truth would be tied no longer to sacred writings and divine revelations, but would be seen henceforward as the product of close analysis and wide-ranging debate. If the old order, with its pious sublimity and its monstrous vindictiveness, had received its highest expression in the work of Dante,1 the new order would be captured best in the tolerance, eloquence, and reasonableness of John Stuart Mill. Earnestness, in short, would carry the day. Liberalism's passion for truth, which Nietzsche viewed as a sign of lingering religiosity no matter how strikingly transmuted,2 assumed a properly balanced

The Role of Religion in School Curriculum and Textbooks

dences. Supreme Court, in seven-to-two decision authored by Justice Brennan, held that the act violated the first prong of the three-pronged test for determining whether legislation comports with the First Amendment's prohibition on the establishment of religion.2 It found that the act was a product of the upsurge of fundamentalist religious fervor, and that its purpose was advance the religious viewpoint that supernatural being created mankind and restructure the curriculum to conform with particular religious viewpoint.3 Louisiana science act attempted to avoid the charge that it was mandating teaching of religious doctrine by stating that its purpose was to protect academic freedom. Supreme Court, however, found that academic freedom embodies the principle that individual instructors are at liberty to teach that which they deem to be appropriate in the exercise of their professional judgment.4 Thus, although Louisiana argued that the act was merely an equal-time requirement in the interests of fairness, the act replaced professional judgment as to what should be taught in the curriculum with legislative fiat that mandated, on nonacademic grounds, that science was an acceptable scientific explanation of the origin of life that must be given equal time. The act, the majority concluded, actually serves to diminish academic freedom by removing the flexibility to teach evolution without also teaching creation science, even if teachers determine that such curriculum results in less effective and com-

Glossolalia: Behavioral Science Perspectives on Speaking in Tongues

Glossolalia or speaking in tongues has evoked much speculation as to its causes and meanings. Primarily occurring in instances of religious fervor, glossolalia's recent linkage to psychopathic behavior has prompted numerous studies by social and behavioral scientists. This book summarizes and interprets all of the research done on this phenomenon. The authors explore the different types and settings of glossolalic expression in contemporary Western religion and consider the phenomenon from the perspectives of sociology, psychology, and linguistics. Numerous case studies are included as well as an abundance of the authors' own research on the subject. Glossolalia will be of particular interest to those in the fields of sociology and psychology and to those engaged in counseling glossolalic individuals.

Women and the dance in Seville's processions during the golden age

During Spain's Golden Age-a time span roughly encompassing sixteenth century and first two-thirds of seventeenth-a union of religious fervor, civic pride, and sensual delight carried city of Seville through a period that has been called the century of processions.1 Although luster of Golden Age was beginning to dim by mid to late 1600s, apogee of processions' brilliance and frequency was actually reached during last hundred years of that age. At that time Seville was a center of power, not only in Spain but also abroad, administering both trade and religious activity in rich Spanish colonies of New World. With its wealth and cosmopolitan influences, city became a center of popular culture and celebration as well. For townspeople and their civil governors, rejoicing was inextricably bound up with physical expression-theatre, dance, music, and brilliant visual display-while many of Seville's clergy and prelates agreed that dance, drama, and music were essential ingredients of public religious celebration. Thus, in this period a major component of any processional celebration, be it religious or civil, was a display of spectacular dances, commissioned by Seville's municipal government and approved by city's top-ranking prelates. These dances were performed in city's cathedral and also at spots designated along parade route. Remarkably, at a time when women were barred from public stages of England and were still far inferior

A City of the Heart: Epic Mathura and the Indian Imagination

IN A SCHOLARLY PAPER entitled, Ayodhyd Conceived and Found, presented before the VIth World Sanskrit Conference recently held in Philadelphia, Professor Hans Bakker of the State University of Groningen argued that the great city of Ayodhya, locus of much of the action of the Rdmdyana, never existed. Instead, he urged, it was a creation of the imagination of the epic poets and only later came to be identified with the historical urban site of Saketa. In support of this idea, he quoted extensively from the writings of Marcel Proust and compared the superimposition of that author's imaginary village of Combray upon an actual French town. Now although Professor Bakker's argument concerning the case of Ayodhya is questionable in a number of important respects, it did raise an interesting issue; that of the relationship between the realities of history and geography and those-often far more keenly felt-of fantasy. In point of fact the cultural and emotional significance of a place important in literature is largely independent of whether the given town, city, country, forest, etc., corresponds to a mark on a map or an entry in a gazetteer. Joyce's Dublin may gain in appeal because we can tramp its streets with Ulysses as our Baedeker, but the novel does not depend on this for its power, and a knowledge of the city is not necessary to an appreciation of the writer's genius. Similarly Forster's Chandrapore loses nothing by its failure to appear in any Indian railway schedule. The fact is that if the description of a place derives from some genuine level of its author's feeling and experience and can appeal to a similar level of emotional reality in its audience, it will be in some sense true regardless of the actual existence of a place with the same name. The fact is that certain places, especially those associated with figures of myth or legend who have captured the hearts and imaginations of particular peoples, can by virtue of the emotional or religious investment in these figures take on a significance that transcends the merely geographical. Perhaps no country has so many such places as does India. The antiquity and continuity of her cultural tradition and the intensity of her religious fervor have combined to invest innumerable geographical sitesrivers, mountains, temples, ponds, cities, and forestswith a sanctity and emotional significance usually reserved, in other cultures and religious traditions, for one, two, or at most a handful of places. The exuberant profusion of Hindu gods, saints, avataras, goddesses, and heroes many of whom have numerous forms and geographically conditioned histories has given rise to a bewildering variety of tUrthas, sacred places of pilgrimage, many of which have, in turn, collectively given rise to a whole sub-genre of literature, the sthalapurana, or traditional history of a sacred site or region. A number of these sites are especially closely associated with one or another of the major cultic figures of Hinduism. Thus great urban centers such as Hardvar and especially Varanas! are intimately associated with the cult and legends of Siva.1 Other regions are more intimately associated with one or another of the popular manifestations of Visnu and have therefore acquired both sanctity and a cherished place in the affections and imagination of many millions of Indians most of whom have never visited them. One such place existing both on the map of India and in the hearts and imaginations of countless generations of Indians is the ancient city of the Indian heartland, the madhyadeia of the epic bards, Mathurd. As the great mass of ancient Indian archeological, art historical, literary, and religious data available to us so abundantly demonstrates, the city of Mathurd and its environs constituted one of the major urban nexus and cultural centers of ancient India from at the least the Sufiga-Kusana period.2 The richness of the

Tactics of Legal Reform: Learning from the Recent Past

Abstract: Present and future reformers can learn a great deal from the tactics successfully employed in the past or in other societies. In Britain in the 1960s, major reforms relating to abortion, capital punishment, censorship, and homosexuality succeeded because the reformers argued their case in utilitarian, welfare terms and thus avoided fundamental moral clashes and countervailing moral crusades. In Ireland, Ulster and the United States religious fervour precludes the use of such a technique. In America reformers have often instead based their case on the Constitution but their success has been divisive and possibly ephemeral. The choice of tactics for reform must reflect the social and political climate of the time and the country.

Toward the Realization of Ummah

IThe domain of Islam embraces some one billion people, 20 percent ofthe world’s population, distributed across the globe in virtually everypolitical unit and geographical context. Ideologically, the Muslim worldsenses a profound communion in the deeply embedded Islamic concept ofa territorially dispersed but spiritually unified global Islamiccommonwealth - ummah. Oswald Spengler, in his monumental Declineofthe West, reminds us that the Islamic community “embraces the wholeof the world-cavern, here and beyond, the orthodox and the good angelsand spirits, and within the community the State only formed a smallerunit of the visible side, a unit, therefore, of which the operations weregoverned by the major whole." This relationship between the modernnation-state and the ummah, now suppressed by the force of modernnationalism, continues to exist as a powerful primordial sentiment oftranscendent importance. That its dimensions, contours, and strengthcannot be assessed by empirical social science analysis does not make itless real as a critical component of the Muslim psyche. This impulsetowards Islamic unity, charged with emotion, religious fervor, andideology, canonically sustained by the concept of ummah, is alsonurtured by a vivid memory of Islamic imperial grandeur and by avibrant dynamic of missionary zeal. The latter, carrying out the Qur’anicproclamation of the universality of Islam and the command for globaldispensation of the Qur’anic message, has lost little of its originalimpetus. The force of ummah is the tacit dimension, the psychicindwelling nature of Islam. Nor can this compelling centrifugal thrustbe lightly dismissed as the transitory phase of a historical process.No other religion has quite so powerful an impetus for globalexpansion - neither Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism nor Christianity ...

Jonathan Edward's Most Popular Work: “The Life of David Brainerd” and Nineteenth-Century Evangelical Culture

When students of early American religion remember David Brainerd, if they remember him at all, it is usually in the context of the First Great Awakening. Born in Haddam, Connecticut in 1718, Brainerd enrolled at Yale in 1739, shortly after he had experienced conversion. By his sophomore year, when New Haven was aflame with the religious fervor that spread like a brush fire through New England, Brainerd was recognized as one of the “New Light” student leaders at Yale. For this reason, he was among the first undergraduates to be disciplined by the college administration as part of an effort to contain religious enthusiasm. Rector Thomas Clap expelled Brainerd in 1742 for remarking that tutor Chauncy Whittelsey had no more grace than a chair and for attending a meeting of Separate Congregationalists in defiance of college rules.

Death by Crucifixion

ABSTRACTThe intricacies encountered in scientific studies of the Crucifixion constitute a formidable challenge to experts in various scientific disciplines. In this regard, medical aspects of these studies concerned with postmortem evidence and mechanism and cause of death is in the domain of the forensic pathologist who is trained to investigate violent and suspicious deaths. Unfortunately, numerous articles have been written in this area by sincere individuals who were influenced by their religious fervor causing them to reach erroneous and untenable suppositions and conclusions. As a consequence, serious errors have been made and propagated. This is particularly true regarding the mechanism and cause of death in crucifixion. The most widely held theory in this regard is the asphyxial or suffocation theory which indicates that the position on the cross is incompatible with breathing. In an endeavor to resolve this controversy, meticulous experimentation was conducted, which included blood gases, ear oxi...

Paradoxes of Change : Culture Crisis, Islamic Revival, and the Reactivation of Patriarchy

The preceding analysis placed the current Islamic revival in historical perspective by means of a comparison with Judeo-Christian culture. While noting important differences in content and structure which have influenced the relative positions of women in each society, it was found that patriarchy constitutes an essential element of both religious traditions. Jewish, Christian, and Islamic doctrines manifest similar themes of female inferiority paradoxically mixed with fears of female sexual power and wile, leading to the imposition of norms which preserve male control, such as female exclusion from public participation and restriction to dependent familial roles. Religious revivals in both cultures are characterized by resurrection of these patriarchal themes, thus explaining the return to the veil by some Muslim women and the anti-feminist sentiments of Christian fundamentalists in the United States. An additional point made by this study is that women function as symbols of cultural and religious identity. Traditional female roles as caretakers of the family, despite their lower valuation in the status hierarchy, constitute the bedrock of human social organization, and an important referent for individual identity. Levi-Strauss, in his classic work, The Elementary Structures of Kinship,67 characterized the exchange of females by male-controlled kinship groups as the foundation of human social organization. Thus, while females have less authority than males, they paradoxically remain powerful objects of kinship exchanges, thus becoming targets of exaggerated male control during periods of social disorganization. Large-scale social upheaval triggers the demand for a reintegration of the self within a stable meaning system, and consequently thrusts the ideology of traditional womanhood to a prominent position in the revival movement. Moreover, challenges to traditional female roles can themselves instigate a resurgence of religious fervor, underscoring the centrality of female subservience and domesticity to religious and cultural identity. In the Muslim region, for example, we have noted the stimulation of religious revivals by policies liberating women from seclusion and male hegemony, intensified in all likelihood by the perception that such policies represented foreign-inspired assaults on the integrity of Islam. An equally plausible hypothesis is that American Christian revivals have been provoked in part by challenges to traditional female domesticity embodied in the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century and the feminist movement of the late 1960's. Thus, this study has tentatively identified some factors which may precipitate revivals of traditional religious and patriarchal sentiments. Additional cross-cultural analysis is needed to elaborate and specify the conditions under which these social movements occur and their consequent effects on women's roles. Finally, this research suggests some theoretical revisions for the more general process of societal development. Prevailing theories of modernization, particularly those influenced by the functionalist perspective, have tended to conceptualize tradition and modernity as contrasting ideal types, equating modernity with a host of structural and cognitive transformations including secularization and female equality.68 Evidence from the United States suggests that the developed nations are neither immune to significant religious revivals nor unilaterally dedicated to women's rights. In the developing world, Muslim leaders have found that Islamic revival is not an impediment to national development, but may in fact provide sacred legitimation for potentially disruptive social change.69 Industrial development, urbanization, and the diffusion of economic rationality may thus coexist with intense religious devotion and popular support for patriarchal traditions.

Persecution and Toleration in the English Reformation

The century of the Reformation, in England as elsewhere, sharpened all conflicts and augmented persecution. As the unity of Christendom broke up, the rival parties acquired that sort of confidence in their own righteousness that encourages men to put one another to death for conscience sake; an era of moderation and tolerance gave way to one of ever more savage repression. To the openminded willingness which characterized the humanism of Erasmus and More as well as the Rome of Leo X there succeeded the bigotry typical of Carafa, Calvin, Knox and the English puritans; only the gradual evaporation of such passions, produced by each side’s inability to triumph totally, produced a weariness with religious strife which made the return of mutual sufferance possible. That, at least, is the received story. Historians of toleration, as for instance Jordan and Lecler, firmly described the history of persecution in this way. Jordan identified six developments which led to its decline in sixteenth-century England: a growing political strength among dissident sects, the impossibility of preventing splintering and preserving uniformity, the needs of trade which overrode religious hostility, experience of travel, the failure to suppress dissident publications, and finally a growing scepticism which denied the claims to exclusive truth advanced by this or that faction. In other words, only two things moved men, once they had fallen away from the generosity of the pre-Reformation era, to substitute an uneasy toleration for a vigorous persecution: the external pressures of experience and the decline of religious fervour. By implication, men of power called for repression and only those who could not hope to win favoured toleration, until general exhaustion set in. It is a convincing enough picture, and much evidence no doubt supports it. But it is a picture—a general and rather schematic panorama which makes little allowance for the real opinions of individuals. On this occasion I should like to test it by looking at the attitudes of two highly articulate sixteenth-century Englishmen—Thomas More, humanist and loyal son of the universal Church, and John Foxe, humanist and faithful protestant. Both, we know, were men of sensitivity and sense. How did they stand to the problem of persecution?

Common Words of African Origin Used in Latin America

EVER since the discipline of linguistics began to solidify itself around the end of the 18th century, scholars in this field have been interested in the phenomenon of language contact and have studied the complexities of linguistic borrowing. As we know, languages do not develop in isolation in any part of the world and Latin America is certainly no exception. Here we find a wide variety of words from many different American Indian languages that have filtered into the Spanish, Portuguese, French Creole, English, or Papiamento spoken in the geographical area of Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean. Most students of Spanish and Portuguese are aware of this indigenous substratum influence, especially as concerns the Aztecs in Mexico, the Mayans in Mexico and Central America, the Incas in Peru, and the Tupi-Guarani in Brazil. Most students, however, do not realize that the Atlantic slave trade was also instrumental in supplying a rich flow of vocabulary items to the superstrate languages throughout a relatively large portion of Latin America. This was especially true in the Caribbean area and in Brazil, since these places needed large numbers of blacks to provide the muscle necessary for the sugar and coffee industries, and, to a lesser extent, for the production of cocoa. That the languages and dialects spoken by the African slaves easily penetrated the superstrate languages may be seen by noting the large number of these black souls that were brought to Spanish and Portuguese America. Philip D. Curtin, in his The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census, tells us that the estimated number of blacks imported to Spanish America during the entire period of the slave trade was approximately 1,552,000, and to Brazil, some 3,646,000.' Even though all these slaves spoke many different languages, it was only natural that some words from them would find their way into Spanish or Portuguese and become permanent fixtures there. No one has ever calculated the approximate number of languages and/or dialects which the slaves brought with them to the Americas, but based upon the areas of sub-Saharan Africa from which the Portuguese, British, Dutch, French, and Danes2 took slaves (parts of all the countries of western Africa, from Senegal in the north to the southern border of Angola, and from Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, and Somalia), it is probably safe to guess that at least about 500 to 700 languages-dialects were involved. Of these, of course, some had more speakers among the slave population than others, and some, such as Yoruba, remained alive and active because of a very strong religious fervor among the people who spoke them, in addition to the numerical preponderance of their speakers. Many of these languages faded out of existence in the Americas when their speakers died, but of those which remained, albeit if only in the form of a few borrowed words cemented into the superstrate language, we ight be safe in assuming a number of about 150-200. To be sure, there are many words of supposed sub-Saharan origin, such as burundanga 'a special drink prepared to bewitch someone,' or candonga 'earring,' the exact source languages of which have not yet been identified. This, of course, is also true for English; the origin of the word chimpanzee, for example, has bewildered scholars for years and to date no one has been able to pin down the language from which it came. Also the source language of the word banjo remains somewhat of a mystery, although there is a strong possibility that it comes from the KiMbundu word mbanza, which is a musical instrument similar to our banjo. In this article, I should like to supply a list of words which are generally well known and found with a relatively high frequency of usage throughout most of Spanish America or Brazil, as the case may be. They are words which, according to my own findings, may be categorized as stemming from a definite sub-Saharan language. As part of the information given under each entry, I will also provide

Mental health and the elderly: new biopharmaceutic considerations.

Prologue: In a world where high technology reigns supreme, the pharmaceutical industry has been on the cutting edge of change, developing new products that serve the twin goals of improving medical care and generating profit. Without question, as this industry has evolved, its products and procedures have become more complex as a consequence of a growing knowledge base and a federal regulatory agency that takes very seriously its statutory charge to insure the safety and efficacy of drugs. Until February, 1983, Bernard E. Cabana worked for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as director of its Division of Biopharmaceutics in the National Center for Drugs and Biologics. Cabana, who holds a Ph.D. in pharmacology and was named to the Senior Executive Service during his tenure at FDA, is above all a scientist. While serving at the FDA, he pursued with a religious fervor the importance of bioequivalence in pharmaceutical products that are depicted as similar. That fervor, of course, placed him at the center...

The Anglican Hierarchy and the Reformation of Manners 1688–1738

Few have studied the early eighteenth-century Church. Caught between puritan triumphs and the Methodist revival, its polemics and efforts at rejuvenation have gone largely unnoticed. Those historians who have noticed describe an Anglican hierarchy lacking in talent and drive and a population devoid of piety and religious fervour. Both of these images are incorrect, as more recent scholarship has begun to suggest. Church historians now concentrate primarily on biographies of famous ecclesiastics and monographs (and articles) on some of the more lively events such as SacheverelPs trial and the Convocation controversy. But no one has systematically explored the Church's attempts to combat the decline brought about by the Toleration Act of 1689 and by its own avoidance of earlier enthusiasms.

THE VENETIAN ‘FIGLIE DEL CORO’: THEIR ENVIRONMENT AND ACHIEVEMENT

THE DEVELOPMENT of women's choirs in Venice during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries forms part of the general welfare activities of the city's social institutions. Religious principles and expediency were the motivating forces that produced a unique phenomenon midway between the splendour of opera and the spirituality of sacred music. The present article attempts to focus attention on the various factors that contributed to the creation of this expression of Venetian culture and to show how the choirs, which sprang from the component aspects of Catholic charitable institutions, not only furthered the development of music but served eventually to alter the direction and image of the institutions to which they owed their formation. The designation luoghi pii (or pii luoghi as it often appears in the records) appears frequently in the Venetian archives from the inception of these institutions right to the end of the eighteenth century, when the organization of welfare work in Venice changed under the Napoleonic regime. There were several pii luoghi, which were created to meet specific needs at different times, and the purposes they fulfilled covered some of the fundamental needs of society. The post-Reformation period brought a fresh upsurge of religious fervour that was expressed in its material effects by the establishment of some of the most renowned social institutions of Venice, which soon became centres for the training of women singers and instrumentalists. Several further institutions sprang up to assist women against the evils of prostitution, either by prevention or by rehabilitation-such were the Zitelle, the Soccorso, the Penitenti and the Convertite. Others served, among other things, as hospitals, for example the Incurabili, which was for syphilitics only. The Derelitti and the Mendicanti provided for all febricitanti, as patients suffering from then undiagnosable diseases were generally described. These last three pii luoghi contained orphanages for abandoned children, as did the earlier Pieta, renowned in Venice as a foundling institution from the mid fourteenth century. The common aim of all four of these pii luoghi was, as is frequently reiterated in their records, to provide various forms of charity for the needy. Their functions were multiple, and in many respects they coincided. As well as containing orphanages, all