Ancient Egyptian Religion Research Articles

The Impact of Religion on the Status of Women in Ancient Egypt

The study of ancient Egyptian religion and femininity in today's academic world has become increasingly sophisticated and comprehensive, but there are still some gaps. This paper explores the impact of religion on women's status in ancient Egypt. Through case studies and literature review, the author analyses the positive impact of religion on women's status in ancient Egypt and the limitations that still exist from the perspectives of cognitive archaeology and femininity. As discussed and analysed, it can be seen that women in ancient Egypt did not have access to higher power and status due to the lack of educational opportunities and the domestic duties they had to undertake, but on the bright side, the existence of the religion in ancient Egypt and its widespread worship guaranteed women's religious participation and allowed them to gain power and status in the religious sphere, which in turn gradually extended their well-being in the practical sphere.

From Psychostasis to the Discovery of Cardiac Nerves: The Origins of the Modern Cardiac Neuromodulation Concept.

This review explores the historical development of cardiology knowledge, from ancient Egyptian psychostasis to the modern comprehension of cardiac neuromodulation. In ancient Egyptian religion, psychostasis was the ceremony in which the deceased was judged before gaining access to the afterlife. This ritual was also known as the "weighing of the heart" or "weighing of the soul". The Egyptians believed that the heart, not the brain, was the seat of human wisdom, emotions, and memory. They were the first to recognize the cardiocentric nature of the body, identifying the heart as the center of the circulatory system. Aristotle (fourth century BC) considered the importance of the heart in human physiology in his philosophical analyses. For Galen (third century AD), the heart muscle was the site of the vital spirit, which regulated body temperature. Cardiology knowledge advanced significantly in the 15th century, coinciding with Leonardo da Vinci and Vesalius's pioneering anatomical and physiological studies. It was William Harvey, in the 17th century, who introduced the concept of cardiac circulation. Servet's research and Marcello Malpighi's discovery of arterioles and capillaries provided a more detailed understanding of circulation. Richard Lower emerged as the foremost pioneer of experimental cardiology in the late 17th century. He demonstrated the heart's neural control by tying off the vagus nerve. In 1753, Albrecht von Haller, a professor at Göttingen, was the first to discover the heart's automaticity and the excitation of muscle fibers. Towards the end of the 18th century, Antonio Scarpa challenged the theories of Albrecht von Haller and Johann Bernhard Jacob Behrends, who maintained that the myocardium possessed its own "irritability", on which the heartbeat depended, and was independent of neuronal sensitivity. Instead, Scarpa argued that the heart required innervation to maintain life, refuting Galenic notions. In contemporary times, the study of cardiac innervation has regained prominence, particularly in understanding the post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2) infection (PASC), which frequently involves cardiorespiratory symptoms and dysregulation of the intrinsic cardiac innervation. Recently, it has been recognized that post-acute sequelae of acute respiratory infections (ARIs) due to other pathogens can also be a cause of long-term vegetative and somatic symptoms. Understanding cardiac innervation and modulation can help to recognize and treat long COVID and long non-COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) ARIs. This analysis explores the historical foundations of cardiac neuromodulation and its contemporary relevance. By focusing on this concept, we aim to bridge the gap between historical understanding and modern applications. This will illuminate the complex interplay between cardiac function, neural modulation, cardiovascular health, and disease management in the context of long-term cardiorespiratory symptoms and dysregulation of intrinsic cardiac innervations.

The value of a human life in ancient Egyptian religion at the turn of the 3rd–2nd millennia BC

The value of a human life in ancient Egyptian religion at the turn of the 3rd–2nd millennia BC

Календарные праздники Египта греко-римского времени: специфика религиозного взаимовлияния

The article analyzes the main Egyptian festivals during the Greco-Roman period concerning the influence of Greek and Roman mystery religions, which significantly affected changes in Egyptian festive culture. Through the examination of Egyptian temple reliefs, including calendar lists and scenes of the Osirian Khoiak Festival, the Coronation of the Sacred Falcon, the Feast of the Beautiful Reunion, as well as lunar festivals, it becomes evident that, from the Hellenistic period onwards, gloomy mystical subjects prevailed in the programs of Egyptian festivals. The rituals were reminiscent of dramatic performances rooted in the myths of Osiris’ and Dionysus-Zagreus’ deaths. The festival concept strengthened the principles of dualism of ideas and things, which were seen in ancient mysteries and involved the immersion of the participants in the darkness and then their unexpected exit to the dazzling light. These actions were associated with initiation stages, symbolizing the soul’s transition from the material world to the spiritual realm, and its posthumous exit from the dark depths of the underworld to Elysium, or the Isles of the Blessed, linked to the Egyptian Fields of Iaru. This dualistic festival concept is expressed, for example, in the reliefs of Dendera and Edfu temples, representing the processions of priests descending into dark rooms and ascending to the temple roof with statues of deities for the rite Xnm itn (meaning “unity with the solar disk”). At the same time, the balance between solar and lunar cults inherent to the ancient Egyptian religion was violated during the Greco-Roman period. The religious practices proposed a shift of the emphasis towards the Osirian cult, correlated with the moon phases.

God mAA it.f in Ancient Egyptian Religion

God mAA it.f in Ancient Egyptian Religion

Women in Ancient Egypt: determination of legal status and peculiarities of marriage and family relations

The main factors that influenced the formation of the worldview of the ancient Egyptian woman have been investigated. The influence of religion on her understanding of the family, her place and purpose in society has been shown. The main criteria of social differentiation of women have been identified. The primary sources, in particular legal monuments, on the basis of which the legal status of women in Ancient Egypt is shown, have been analysed. The features of marriage and family relations have been characterised. The research is based on the principle of historicism. Historical and comparative as well as historical and genetic methods were used to study the peculiarities of marriage and family relations, normative and comparative and hermeneutical methods were used when working with primary sources. The gender approach has led to a comprehensive study of religious, political, legal norms and social institutions, such as the family, family, culture, and more.
 Generalisations and conclusions have been made, stating that it was in the religion of Ancient Egypt that the united cults of the divine couple with a son-infant appeared, which became a model for the Egyptians in creating their own family. They were the first among the ancient civilisations to consider the family as the basis of society, which gives us grounds to assert that the family in our modern sense emerged in Ancient Egypt. The social status of women was different. The highest were the ruler’s wives and priestesses, and the lowest were maids and slaves. They had no legal rights and were considered property. However, slaves had the right to personal belongings and to have a family. They faced punishment for ill-treatment. Under certain conditions, slaves could become free and receive the rights of an Egyptian woman. It has been noted that free ancient Egyptian women had almost equal legal rights with men, which distinguishes them from women of other ancient civilisations.
 It has been emphasized that the study of the status of women and the peculiarities of marriage and family relations in Ancient Egypt allows us to see the historical origins of gender inequality, to understand such basic human values as love, mutual respect, responsibility, tolerance, devotion, etc. which should become the basis for addressing modern gender issues.

Vedic Slavism in Slovakia : ideology and practice

The paper deals with religiously oriented groups with the umbrella name the Slavic–Aryan Vedas movement. This movement is unique in its teachings, which are Pagan at their core but significantly modified, incorporating other, mostly oriental traditions (Hinduism, Buddhism, ancient Egyptian religion, Judaism, and others). The article aims to provide a general overview of groups active in Slovakia. The main aim was to answer the following research questions. Are these groups a part of the Pagan milieu? What are the elements that are crucial for the ideology of Vedic Slavism? How are these elements manifested in practice? The study also explains the origins of these groups, the cultural context, and the creation of subgroups. The data presented in this study come from field research (2019–2021) using qualitative methods such as participatory observation, online ethnography, and autoethnography.

Apotropaic Roles of Khonsu in the Ancient Egyptian Religion during the Dynastic Period

Apotropaic Roles of Khonsu in the Ancient Egyptian Religion during the Dynastic Period

KAYIP BİNYIL: İSLAM DÜNYASINDA HİYEROGLİFLER VE ESKİ MISIR-Okasha el-Daly(Ukâşe ed-Dâlî)

The Arab study of Ancient Egypt was the result of a universal understanding of history rather than the narrow purpose of verifying scriptures. They were critical of pre-Islamic written sources and did not accept even texts based on eyewitnesses uncritically. The Arabs' work, which included accurate descriptions of ancient monuments, was aimed at understanding their symbolic value and function. They noticed the relationship of the ancient Egyptian language to Coptic, the phonetic value of hieroglyphs, and that some were grouped like alphabets. Arab writers interested in deciphering Egyptian script were primarily alchemists and often Sufis. Access to Ancient Egyptian texts written in Demotic and Coptic – often in Greek translations – has helped Arab scholars better understand the complex nature of Egyptian religion.
 
 Studies of the origin of Sufism tend to concentrate on India and Persia, without mentioning the Egyptian sources. However, for example, Akhenaten's comparison of Suhrawardi- Illuminationism (Ishraqiyya) with sun hymns and studies on Mandaeanist/ Sabianist religious traditions in Iraq and Iran will shed light on the similarities between Egyptian religion and especially rituals and beliefs. 
 Medieval writers tried to find common ground between Islamic teachings and Ancient Egyptian religion.
 Studies of Arabic philosophy can shed light on the problems of Ancient Egyptian philosophy. Because some basic concepts of Ancient Egyptian philosophy formed the basis of later Arab and Greek philosophy. Arab writers, like their classical predecessors, thought that this country had been home to science and wisdom since Hermes of Egypt, to whom they attributed the invention of writing, alchemy and medicine. They knew that the pharaoh Moses was dealing with was not a typical pharaoh but an exception. Pharaohs were portrayed as skilled rulers, knowledgeable and pious figures who cared for the welfare of the people.
 Cleopatra is described in Arabic sources as a philosopher and scholar, without reference to her physical attractiveness.
 Despite more than two centuries of domination of Egyptology by the Eurocentric view that ignored the thousand-year Arab contribution, archaeologists working in other parts of the Near East have also begun to realize the problem of Western dominance among them. But we also owe much to our Western colleagues for their invaluable contributions.

Doubting Priests and Practitioners in Ancient Egyptian Religion

Doubting Priests and Practitioners in Ancient Egyptian Religion

Миф, боги, человек: "спекулятивная теология" как культурный и религиозный феномен древнеегипетской мысли XV-XIII вв. до н.э.

This paper studies the features of the so-called “speculative theology” of Amun-Re, the most prominent trend of ancient Egyptian religious and theological thought of the XV-XIII centuries BC on the example of two of its most significant texts, Cairo (Pap. Boulaq 17 Pap. Kairo CG 58038) and Leiden (Pap. Leiden I 350) hymns to Amun. Unlike earlier forms of Egyptian spiritual culture, for the first time in the history of ancient Egyptian religion, it creates the image of a transcendent deity, the connection of the believer with whom is now carried out through direct personal contact, and not through traditional forms of worship for the Egyptian religion. At the same time, many features of the image of Amun in the Theban “speculative theology” of the New Kingdom can already be considered as an attempt at a fundamentally new reflection of traditional categories of ancient Egyptian culture, such as, for example, “Maat” (world-order, justice, truth), both based on traditional values and departing from them. The reason for this was the crisis of traditional ideas about Maat after the Amarna era, which fundamentally changed the nature of popular piety and at the same time the basic principles of Egyptian religious and political ethics. From the point of view of the mythogenic conception of the genesis of philosophy, “speculative theology” - both in Egypt of the New Kingdom and somewhat later in archaic Greece – is of exceptional interest as the most important "transitional form" on the path of transformation of primitive myth into philosophical discourse and at the same time an interesting example of the interpenetration and joint evolution of mythological, religious and emerging philosophical worldview. Not always turning into a full-fledged philosophical tradition (this is exactly what happens, in particular, with the Theban “speculative theology” of Amun-Re), it nevertheless demonstrates the complex ways of transforming the spiritual world of the ancient man of the Eastern Mediterranean, thanks to which the spiritual transformation of the "axial time" became possible in many ways. By the example of the image of Amun, the transformation of ideas about religious experience in the Egyptian culture of the era of the New Kingdom is also studied.

The deity Bapef(y) in ancient Egyptian Religion

The deity Bapef(y) in ancient Egyptian Religion

Hedgehogs and Hedgehog-Head Boats in Ancient Egyptian Religion in the Late 3rd Millennium BCE

Hedgehogs held a special place in ancient Egyptian life like many other desert- and marsh-dwelling animals. Their natural defensive qualities were admired by ancient Egyptians and their bodily parts, notably their hardened spines, were used as ingredients in medico-magical prescriptions. In tomb reliefs of the late 3rd Millennium BCE, hedgehogs are represented being carried alive by offering bearers or as background participants in desert hunting scenes. In later periods of Egyptian history, rattles, small unguent vessels, and scaraboid amulets were made in their shape, all of which are presumed to have had apotropaic purposes. A particular votive object of the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BCE) is a palm-sized modelled boat with a prow in the shape of a hedgehog head, which has been discovered at sites throughout Egypt. A similar representation of this motif is the so-called ‘Henet’-boat (from the word ḥnt[j]) with a hedgehog head at the prow facing inwards, which is found in late Old Kingdom art. This article reassesses the role of hedgehogs as protective or apotropaic entities and their association with boats, considering how ancient Egyptians understood their ecology and their predation of snakes, scorpions, and similar stinging creatures. An updated list is provided of known representations of hedgehog-head boats, including petroglyphs and as yet unpublished examples from tombs at Giza and Saqqara. The meaning of the ancient Egyptian word ḥnt(j) is also rexamined in relation to the representation of riverine and marsh-water boats in Old Kingdom tombs.

The Significance of Number Three in The Ancient Egyptian Religion

Ancient Egyptian symbols were employed to represent a wide range of concepts and ideas during different periods of the Egyptian civilization like the idea of trinity. Trinity was formed by combining three components. This idea came into existence from the Pre-dynastic period till the Christian era. Moreover, the ancient Egyptians worshipped their deities in groupings known as triads. Triads are classified into two types: regular and irregular. Furthermore, three used to appear as guardian demons in the Ancient Egyptian religious books. Moreover, in the ancient Egyptian mythology, three signify conflict. Additionally, the ancient Egyptians communicated with the deceased in three different ways. Also number three has an importance in the sacred architecture in ancient Egypt. This study aims to demonstrate the significance of number three and the earliest appearance of numerals in Ancient Egypt. Furthermore, the origin of the idea of trinity. Later, this idea developed into the triad. The methodology of this paper is to study number three and the idea of trinity from the ancient Egyptian religious aspect. However, while seeking to comprehend the ancient Egyptians, their culture, and their symbols one should first understand and study their religion, as the ancient Egyptian religion affects them in all the aspects of their life.

Goddess Serket in Ancient Egyptian Religion

Goddess Serket in Ancient Egyptian Religion

Laughter, carnival and religion in ancient Egypt

The article highlights the problem of interaction of the ancient Egypt laughter culture with the category of sacred. A person is confronted with the fact that the examples in question can often be phenomena of a different order, and the use of terms such as “carnival” or even “religion”, “temple” or “priest” in relation to ancient Egypt requires an additional explanation. We find “funny” images on the walls of tombs and in the temples, where the Egyptians practiced their cult. In the Ramesside period (1292-1069 BC) a huge layer of the culture of laughter penetrated a written tradition in a way that Mikhail Bakhtin called the carnivalization of literature. Incredible events are described in stories and fairy tales in a burlesque, grotesque form, and great gods are exposed as fools. Applying of the Bakhtinian paradigm to the material of the Middle and New Kingdom allows to reveal the ambivalent character of the Ancient Egyptian laughter: the Egyptians could joke on the divine and remain deeply religious.

A pregnant ancient egyptian mummy from the 1st century BC

Radiological examination of an ancient mummy said to have been found in royal tombs in Thebes, Upper Egypt, has proved it is the body of a pregnant woman. She came from the elite of Theban community and was carefully mummified, wrapped in fabrics, and equipped with a rich set of amulets. Closer examination has revealed that the woman died between 20 and 30 years of age together with the fetus in age between the 26th and 30th week of the pregnancy. This find is the only known case of an embalmed pregnant individual.This mummy provides new possibilities for pregnancy studies in ancient times, which can be compared with and related to current cases. Furthermore, this specimen sheds a light on an unresearched aspect of ancient Egyptian burial customs and interpretations of pregnancy in the context of ancient Egyptian religion.

Goddess Sopdet in Ancient Egyptian Religion

This paper deals with one of the astral goddesses in Ancient Egyptian religion, Sopdet; she was goddess of the brightest star in the southern sky. She personified the Dog Star, Sirius, she was known as Sothis to the Greeks , she was worshipped at Saft el-Hinna. Sopdet was known as the wife of god sah (Orion)[i] and mother of god Sopdu[ii], she was associated to many deities like Isis in the form of Isis Sothis, she was known since the first Dynasty as the goddess who brings the new year and the innundation, as each year the coming of the flood coincided with the moment of its brightness on the horizon at dawn after its absence for about 70 days (This phenomenon is called a heliacal rising of Sothis. )[iii] , so she was considered as a fertility goddess because of the soil braught by the flood .her appearance also corresponded with the beginning of the ancient Egyptian year [iv] , and she was considered as the queen of all decans, as she preceded all the stars .[v] She appeared in different forms, as she appeared in a human form , a cow , a lioness headed serpent, and a dog headed serpent.she is characterized by many qualities and titles. The research studies the archaeological and textual evidences of goddess Sopdet referring to her titles, qualities, forms, roles and her relations to other deitie. [i]Sah was the personified god for the southern constellation known as Orion , and he was the father in the triad consisted of sah, Sopdet as the mother and their son was sopdu, he is manifestated to Osiris in the pyramid texts as he was mentioned as the father of gods; R. H. Wilkinson, The complete gods and goddesses of Ancient Egypt ,Cairo, 2003, p. 127 [ii] Sopdu was the god of the eastern borders. He is represented as a crouching falcon or Bedouin warrier wearing a crown of tall feathers with long hair and pointed beard. His main cult center was at saft el henna ( per sopdu) and he was worshipped together with Hathor at Serabbit el khadem ; G. Hart, The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses, London, 2005,p.151. [iii] L. Depuydt, ''Sothic Chronology and the Old Kingdom'', JARCE 37, 2000, p. 168 [iv] Joachim Friedrich Quack, Astronomy in Ancient Egypt, Oxford, 2018, p.3 [v] L.S. Bull, '' An Ancient Egyptian Astronomical Ceiling-Decoration'', The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin , Vol. 18, No. 12, Nov., 1923, p. 286

Negating Seth: Destruction as Vitality

Abstract In the past, different points in time have been set as demarcating the beginning of the end of Ancient Egyptian religion. One of these is the start of the so-called “proscription” of the god Seth, whose names and images are found damaged in many of their occurrences. In previous studies, this observation was explained as the result of intentional destruction performed during the first millennium BCE, and as such as indicative of the decay of Ancient Egyptian religion at this time. However, Seth was from his earliest attestations conceived as a deity ready to perform acts of violence and disruption; under specific circumstances he needed to be banished, but his character was also valued in circumstances requiring violence. This article discusses the problems, fallacies, and arguments of interpreting the intentions behind the destruction of monuments in general and the treatment of Seth in particular. It will be argued that “negating” the image of the “negative” god was not done with malicious intent, but to highlight this god’s role, which was important for the context of the image. It will be proposed that this phenomenon proves that Egyptian religion was still vibrantly alive at that time, not fading away and dying.

Implications of geoarchaeological investigations for the contextualization of sacred landscapes in the Nile Delta

Abstract. Key elements of sacred landscapes of the Nile Delta were lakes, canals and artificial basins connected to temples, which were built on elevated terrain. In the case of temples of goddesses of an ambivalent, even dangerous, nature, i.e. lioness goddesses and all female deities who could appear as such, the purpose of sacred lakes and canals exceeded their function as a water resource for basic practical and religious needs. Their pleasing coolness was believed to calm the goddess' fiery nature, and during important religious festivals, the barques of the goddesses were rowed on those waters. As archaeological evidence was very rare in the past, the study of those sacred waters was mainly confined to textual sources. Recently applied geoarchaeological methods, however, have changed this situation dramatically: they allow in-depth investigations and reconstructions of these deltaic sacred landscapes. Exploring these newly available data, the paper presented here focuses on the sites of Buto, Sais and Bubastis, by investigating the characteristics of their sacred lakes, canals and marshes with respect to their hydrogeographical and geomorphological context and to their role in ancient Egyptian religion and mythology as well.