Relative Water Scarcity Research Articles

The spatiotemporal evolution of socioeconomic drought in the Arid Area of Northwest China based on the Water Poverty Index

The Arid Area of Northwest China (AANC) has the most resource-based water scarcity in China. It also has engineering-, structural-, and management-based water scarcity, all of which seriously restricts the AANC's socioeconomic development. This paper uses the Water Poverty Index's (WPI) characterization of socioeconomic drought to analyze WPI change trends and spatiotemporal patterns in the AANC from 2001 to 2020. Further, the paper comprehensively analyzes the relative water scarcity degree across different zones, using the Structural Equation Model (SEM) to identify the main factors affecting the WPI and the contribution rate of each factor. The results show that the average value of the WPI in the AANC from 2001 to 2020 was 45.6, indicating severe drought. However, from 2016 onward, the degree of socioeconomic drought eased and then transitioned to moderate drought. Significant differences in the spatial distribution of the WPI occur in the AANC, with the WPI in the Hexi Corridor (47.17) being higher than the regional average (45.32), the WPI in northern Xinjiang (45.74) being the same as the regional average, and the WPI in southern Xinjiang (43.05) being lower. There are different types of water scarcity problems across the region, with Alashan, Kezhou and Zhangye experiencing water scarcity that is resource-, engineering-, and management-based, respectively. Numerous factors affect the socioeconomic drought in the AANC. Potential water resources are the main factor, with a contribution rate of 36.58%. Water supply facilities, utilization capacity, use efficiency, and the environment have a relatively small impact on the WPI, with contribution rates of 18.29%, 15.36%, 15.52%, and 14.25%, respectively. This study can provide a reference framework for the construction of a regional socioeconomic index system for drought evaluation. It can also provide scientific and technological support for regional water resources management and industrial structure planning.

Droughts and rural households’ wellbeing: evidence from Mexico

Climate change could increase the frequency and duration of droughts that affect Mexico. This is particularly worrisome because many agricultural communities in the country are poor and with limited capacities for adaptation. This study estimated the impact of droughts on rural households’ wellbeing in Mexico, specifically on per capita earnings, poverty, and children’s school attendance. To do this, we focused our empirical analysis on the effects of the 2011 drought, one of the worst droughts that have affected Mexico in the past 70 years. Our results provide clear evidence that droughts have a negative impact on rural households’ wellbeing. Households that experienced a drought had lower per capita earnings and were almost 5 percentage points more likely to be poor after the drought than their counterparts. Furthermore, droughts reduced female employment and male school attendance in almost three percentage points. Our results also provide indirect evidence showing that households that are less familiar with relative water scarcity are the ones that are hit hardest during droughts. Droughts are poised to become an additional threat to the wellbeing of rural Mexican households.

The Water Scarcity Footprint of the US Diet

Abstract Objectives Agriculture accounts for 80% of global freshwater consumption, so addressing the water demands of current diets is crucial. Unlike carbon footprints, the impacts of water use are local and dependent on relative water scarcity. New metrics have been developed to assess the amount of water used to produce a product, conditional on its scarcity at the source of production. But little is known about the implications for water scarcity of individual diet choices in the US. Here, we apply this water scarcity metric to individual US diets and assess key contributors to the footprint. Methods Our analysis was based on a global database of watershed-level, geo-spatially explicit irrigation water demand for 160 crops. We used the Available Water Remaining (AWARE) method, applied at the same geo-spatial resolution to establish local water scarcity footprints (WSF) of each crop. These WSFs were aggregated to the national level and adjusted for commodity imports using WSFs from source countries. WSFs of animal-based foods relied on generic U.S. feed rations. Crops were assigned to foods in the Food Commodities Intake Database (FCID), and recipes from FCID enabled linkage to as-consumed foods in the 1-day dietary recall data from individuals (N = 16,800) in the 2005–2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Results Animal protein foods account for 33% of the WSF of the average US diet, whereas vegetable protein foods account for 12%, most of that coming from nuts (11%). The contribution of beef (14%) was about 3 times that of chicken (5%). Within vegetable protein foods, almonds (5%), walnuts (3%), and cashews (2%) contributed much more to the WSF than dry beans (1%). Fruit (16%), dairy (9%), and vegetables (9%) were also large contributors to the average WSF. Diets ranked in the top quintile of WSFs account for 43% of the overall footprint, 5.4 times that from the lowest quintile. Conclusions Progress toward sustainable diets should consider the impact of dietary choices on scarcity-characterized water footprints. Major contributors to the WSF of the US diet include meat, fruit, nuts, dairy, and vegetables. Substantial variation of the WSF intensity of individual commodities within these food groups suggests that dietary changes could be made to reduce the impact of agriculture on the use of scarce water. Funding Sources Wellcome Trust #106,854/Z/15/Z.

Shifting from volume to economic value in virtual water allocation problems: A proposed new framework and methodology

PurposeThe water footprint provided a full methodology to operationalise the virtual water concept (the volume of water used along a supply chain to produce products and services). A key theme in the water footprint literature is the efficient allocation of water resources at the global scale given the feasibility of trading water intensive commodities from water rich to water poor areas: this is an economic problem of resource allocation between alternative and competing demands, albeit with a novel international component. Moreover, given that price signals indicating relative scarcity are usually either absent or distorted for water, it is also a problem that can be seen through the lens of environmental (or non-market) valuation. However, to date environmental valuation has not been used to inform the efficient use and allocation of water within and between the different locations encompassed by international supply chains. MethodsDrawing on an agri-food supply chain framework that we propose in this paper, we begin by conceptualising the economic values that accrue to water consumption (blue and green water) and degradation (grey water) at different points along a supply chain. Based on this conceptualisation, we assess the extent to which it is possible to approximate these economic values by relying on existing secondary data on the shadow value of water in different contexts. The use of secondary data in this way is known as benefit (or value) transfer. To achieve this, 706 unit estimates of the economic value of water are collected, standardised and reviewed encompassing off-stream water applications (agriculture, industry and municipal) and in-stream ecosystem services (waste assimilation, wildlife habitat, recreation, hydrological functions and passive uses). From this, a proposed methodology for valuing virtual water is presented and illustrated using the case study of global durum wheat pasta production. ResultsThe case study shows the total value of the virtual water used to produce one tonne of durum wheat pasta ($212). More importantly, the case study also highlights how variations in economic value between multiple locations where durum wheat is cultivated (Saskatchewan $0.10 m3, Arizona $0.08 m3 and Baja California $0.24 m3) indicate relative water scarcity and thus impact, as well as the potential for a more efficient allocation of virtual water. ConclusionsThe main conclusion from this research is that when geographical disparities in the economic value of water use within a supply chain are accounted for, what was perhaps considered sustainable in volume terms, might not, in fact, represent the optimal allocation. However, future research opportunities highlight the need for additional data collection on the economic value of water in several contexts. This additional data would help the environmental valuation community to undertake a more comprehensive and robust approach to virtual water valuation.This paper is accompanied by the Data in Brief article entitled “Dataset on the in-stream and off-stream economic value of water.”

Exploring the relative water scarcity across the Indian million-plus urban agglomerations: An application of the Water Poverty Index

Indian cities are rapidly expanding and with increase in migration the country is expected to witness unprecedented urbanization in the coming decade. In this context, it is important to take a holistic and realistic view of the challenges faced by Indian cities with respect to water so as to prepare and formulate policies that prompts for sustainable use of water resources and makes cities water resilient. This study evaluates the extent of water scarcity across forty-two million-plus Indian urban agglomerations incorporating Water Poverty Index (WPI). WPI combines the physical water availability with the people's capacity to access the resource, in order to assess the water scarcity. The purpose of the index is to offer a single composite value which plays a vital role in prioritizing the work related to water. The index captures the vulnerability or risk facing Indian cities to water scarcity based on five critical dimensions viz.; resource, capacity, access, use and environment.

Towards a water balanced utilization through circular economy

Purpose The purpose of this study is to describe and explain the relative water scarcity condition as one of the main problems encountered in Indonesia. It is caused by fierce competition between water users, water over consumption and high water price. The water conflict and increasing phenomena of relative water scarcity result in unequal access to water between the rich and the poor. This research is intended to contribute to a balanced water governance system that secures equal and fair access to water resources for all users. Design/methodology/approach A mixed method approach was used involving interviews with the owners of the established bottled water companies, the community leaders, guard for sluice gate, local NGOs and several government agencies. Findings Research results indicate that water policies and implementation are lacking coherency. It is also shown that the complex government structure with responsibilities divided over multiple agencies is responsible for this. The circular economy for water governance system used to find alternative solutions for reducing social conflicts so that the water will be made available to those who have no water access. Research limitations/implications This research used only one location with a representative number of interviewees; hence, the findings are not possibly generalizable. Originality/value The combination of water legal framework and circular economy concept was used to reduce water scarcity

Relative Water Scarcity and Country Relations along Cross-Boundary Rivers: Evidence from the Aral Sea Basin

Relative Water Scarcity and Country Relations along Cross-Boundary Rivers: Evidence from the Aral Sea Basin

THE GOVERNANCE OF MAJOR INNOVATION IN THE WATER CYCLE. EXAMINING THREE PROMINENT TECHNOLOGIES

The growing absolute and relative water scarcity requires drastic change in the water cycle in order to target an efficient and robust water supply. The water cycle consists of the production of water, water use, collection of wastewater and its treatment. This article addresses whether the market is capable of adopting such radical changes as needed, which hindrances have to be navigated and whether and how policy could help. This is done by assessing the roles of three prominent new technologies in the water cycle in the Netherlands. First the three technological innovations are introduced and described: the first resulted in new technology for wastewater treatment plants (Nereda ), the second deals with a particular water pollution issue (Pharma filter ) and the third is about decentral sanitation (DeSaR). This is followed by an analysis of the process of development and market adoption of each of them, including the emerged hindrances. Arguments for a more prominent water cycle policy are thereafter derived from literature on welfare theory, socio-technological systems and empirical observations. With regard to relevant policy domains we distinguish between research policy, innovation policy and sector policy. A balanced combination of research policy, innovation policy and sector policy is needed to address the challenges with regard to future water supply.

Water–food–energy nexus in Chile: the challenges due to global change in different regional contexts

This paper modifies the traditional representation of the water–food–energy (WFE) nexus by emphasizing the flows or influences between components. This allows a better representation of the dynamic nature of the WFE nexus in response to global change drivers. It applies a conceptual figure to synthesize the status and future challenges of the nexus in four regions of Chile that are currently under pressure due to climate variability, relative water scarcity and strong competition for water from different sectors.

Water Scarcity on the Abundance: Political Ecology Perspective

The situation of relative water scarcity becomes a classic problem in developing countries. This issue is not about the absence of water, but rather about the inequality with regard to access to water. Scarcity of water is a part of daily life for some though the area of abundant water resources. The factors that lead to this exclusion of water are described by applying political ecology of hydro-social cycle. The concurrent transformative method is used in this research to obtain deeper understanding and to generalize the situation. This research formulated four factors that influence to inequality access to water beside hydrological factor. The factors are lack of planning, collusion, lack of information transparency, and inconsistency of water regulation. All factors can be eliminated by improving water regulation, monitoring, and implementation. In doing so, the benefit of water can be equal to all users.

Avaliação do potencial de redução do consumo de água potável por meio da implantação de sistemas de aproveitamento de água de chuva em edificações unifamiliares

In a scenario of relative water scarcity, it is advisable to implement public policies aiming at maintaining adequate potable water supply. A relevant alternative regarding water supply policies is the use of rainwater harvesting systems in residential buildings in order to meet the households non-potable water demands. This paper suggests a methodology to evaluate the potential for drinking water savings in urban area using rainwater for non-potable purposes in single-family dwellings. Hydraulic and financial assessments were performed, taking as case study Belo Horizonte, 2.4 million-inhabitant city that is the capital of the state of Minas Gerais. Results suggest that, in a scenario of widespread use of domestic rainwater harvesting systems, one can get the equivalent of two months of drinking water supply as drinking water annual savings. On the other hand, for the adopted scenario, results suggest economic feasibility of the systems, although with a high payback and internal rate of return very close to the attractive interest rates. These results suggest that the dissemination of these systems may require funding models and other economic tools to promote them for large scale use

Reply to Ridoutt and Huang: From water footprint assessment to policy

According to Ridoutt and Huang (1), “environmental relevance must be taken into consideration if water footprints are to inform wise decision making and policy development.” Indeed, reduction targets regarding water footprints (WFs) within catchments should be formulated on the basis of relative water scarcity per catchment, because local environmental impact of water use is generally larger when scarcity is higher. In many river basins, the blue WF exceeds blue freshwater availability, causing substantial environmental impact (2). However, local environmental impact is only one of a range of factors to be considered when prioritizing options for WF reduction (3). Other relevant factors are global sustainability, social equity, and economic efficiency.

The economic value of improved agrometeorological information to irrigators amid climate variability

AbstractIn Australia, climate variability and the predicted impact of climate change help in making seasonal rainfall less predictable and seasonal irrigation supplies more uncertain, eroding agricultural production prospects and profitability. Water allocation forecasts have economic value to irrigators for making informed cropping decisions. This study estimated the economic value of improved irrigation allocation forecasts in the Coleambally irrigation area (CIA) in southeastern Australia using a non‐linear programming model. The model uses production and profit functions to estimate yield and gross margins for various water allocation levels rather than using given crop yields and gross margins. The model also captures the tactical response of improved cropping decisions made by irrigators based on water allocation announcements throughout the irrigation season. Tactical responses include changing the winter crop combinations, abandoning irrigation for a percentage of the summer crops, temporary purchase or sale of water, and deficit irrigation.The estimated economic benefit of improved seasonal water allocation forecasts to the CIA irrigators ranges from AU$ 1.33 ha−1 to AU$ 9.58 ha−1 (AU$ 1 = US$ 0.77). The economic analysis of water allocation forecasts shows that the potential total gross margin for the irrigators at the 100% allocation level was AU$ 47.6 m, assuming accurate forecast of the end‐of‐season allocations. A more realistic scenario generates a forecast value of AU$ 8.9 million reduction in the gross margin (pessimistic water allocation outlook) and AU$ 1.60 million in the forgone gross margin (optimistic water allocation outlook) for only 5% variation in outlook above or below the actual allocation level of 60%. This suggests that losses far exceed when water allocations are over‐estimated by irrigators, as resources and inputs could be overly committed to execute the less‐informed cropping plans. The knowledge benefits from forecasts are far greater at the lower end of an allocation due to relative water scarcity. However, for higher allocation levels (>80%), the knowledge benefits are negligible due to less water scarcity. Thus, investments in water allocation forecasts and related agrometeorological information could be useful tools for policy makers, farmers, agribusiness, and the insurance industry. Copyright © 2009 Royal Meteorological Society

Manufacturing Firms’ Demand for Water Recirculation

Relatively little is known about the factors that influence firms’ water recirculation decisions. This paper estimates an econometric model that jointly considers two facets of firms’ recirculation behavior: first, the discrete decision of whether to recirculate and, second, the decision of how much to recirculate. The model is estimated by applying the Heckman two‐stage estimation procedure to cross‐sectional data from Environment Canada's 1996 Industrial Water Use Survey. In the first stage, long‐run factors, such as relative water scarcity and production technologies, are found to influence the decision whether to recirculate water. In the second stage, the imputed prices of intake water and water recirculation as well as the scale of operations are found to influence the choice of the optimal quantity of water to recirculate. Les facteurs qui influencent les décisions des entreprises concernant le recyclage de l’eau sont assez peu connus. Dans le présent article, nous avons estimé un modèle économétrique qui tient compte de deux aspects du comportement des entreprises envers le recyclage de l’eau : le choix de recycler l’eau ou non et le choix de la quantité d’eau à recycler. Nous avons estimé le modèle à l’aide de la procédure en deux étapes de Heckman que nous avons appliquée à des données transversales tirées de l’Enquête sur l’utilisation industrielle de l’eau, réalisée par Environnement Canada en 1996. À la première étape, des facteurs à long terme tels que la rareté relative de l’eau et les technologies de production influent sur la décision de recycler l’eau ou non. À la deuxième étape, les prix imputés du captage et du recyclage de l’eau ainsi que l’envergure des opérations influent sur le choix de la quantité optimale d’eau à recycler.

Optimal Water Allocation under Short-Run Water Scarcity in the South Saskatchewan River Basin

This paper examines the effect on economic welfare of alternative surface water allocations in the Alberta portion of the South Saskatchewan River Basin in Canada. Growing demands for urban and instream water uses add to significant irrigation withdrawals, all contributing to relative water scarcity. A computational model optimizes the annual value derived from spatially diverse water withdrawals, fully respecting their hydrologic and economic linkages. The model simulates current allocation practices and defines optimal allocations under alternative demand and supply scenarios. The use of the publicly developed Aquarius modeling software illustrates its comparative strengths relative to other models that optimize explicitly with respect to economic values. The model’s numerical estimates support the conclusion that there are sufficient surface water resources for users to adapt to a range of alterations in water supply or water demand, but that substantial short-term reallocations of water among users mi...

Are virtual water “flows” in Spanish grain trade consistent with relative water scarcity?

Virtual water adds a new dimension to international trade, and brings along a new perspective about water scarcity and water resource management. Most virtual water literature has focused on quantifying virtual water “flows” and on its application to ensure water and food security. Nevertheless, the analysis of the potential gains from international trade, at least from a water resources perspective, needs to take into account both spatial and temporal variations of blue (groundwater and stream flow) and green (soil moisture) water, as well as the socioeconomic and policy conditions. This paper evaluates whether Spanish international trade with grains is consistent with relative water scarcity. For this purpose, the study estimates the volume and economic value of virtual water “flow” through international grain trade for the period 1997–2005, which includes 3 years with different rainfall levels. The calculations show that Spain is a net virtual water “importer” through international grain trade. The volume of net virtual water “imports” amounts to 3420, 4383 and 8415 million m 3 in wet (1997), medium (1999) and dry (2005) years, respectively. Valuing blue water at its shadow price or scarcity value, blue water “exports” oscillate between 0.7 and 34.2 million Euros for a wet and dry year, respectively. Overall, grain trade is apparently consistent with relative water scarcity as net imports increase in dry years. However, the evolution of grain exports, expressed as a variation in quantity and volume, does not match the variations in resource scarcity. A disaggregated crop analysis reveals that there are other factors, such as quality, product specialization or the demand for a standardized product, which also influence trade decisions and are not included in the notion of virtual water. These facts, among others, can therefore create potential distortions in the application of virtual water to the analysis of specific trade patterns. Nevertheless, from a water resources perspective, virtual water can bring important insights across countries for improving water and land management globally, fostering adaptation strategies to climate change and to transboundary resource management.

Fundamentals Determining Prices and Activities in the Market for Water Allocations

This paper analyses prices paid and volumes traded in the market for water allocations to provide insight into which factors drive activities in that market. While factors such as commodity prices, supply and demand as well as macroeconomic indicators have had an influence on price and volume traded, the main determinants during the study period have been the level of seasonal allocation, rainfall and evaporation. During this period of relative water scarcity, irrigators with water-dependent capital assets such as dairy and horticultural farmers have been willing to pay increasing water prices relative to commodity prices in order to protect these long-term investments and stay in business.

Water, food and environment: conflict or dialogue?

Increased water conflicts are the result of the rapidly increasing relative water scarcity in many basins to which water institutions have not yet successfully adapted. The Dialogue on Water, Food and Environment is a program of activities that employs processes at international, national, basin and local scales to help build bridges between agriculture and the environment.