Relative Degree Of Crystallinity Research Articles

Effect of chickpea thermal treatments on the starch digestibility of the fortified biscuits

Flour of roasted and heat-moisture treated chickpeas was used as a partial replacement of wheat flour, facilitating the development of biscuits with delayed digestion properties. The multiscale structural properties of starch and microstructural changes in chickpea flour and fortified biscuits were analyzed. Chickpea thermal treatment reduced the starch digestibility of fortified biscuits by 5.43%–7.33%, enhanced the resistant starch content of chickpea flour by 7.86%–12.28%. For thermal-treated chickpea fortified biscuits, the degree of relative crystallinity, short-range order, and double helix of starch was enhanced, the pasting viscosity was reduced, and the heat-moisture treatment showed a significant effect. Scanning electron microscope showed that fortified biscuits had a continuous and denser microstructure, reducing the accessibility of enzymes to hydrolyze starch molecules. The glycemic index values of fortified biscuits were reduced to below 66 in mice, as seen by their postprandial blood glucose response. Altogether, these results provide guidance for the development of delayed digestion meal replacement biscuits.

Effects of Mannitol and Xylitol on the Quality of Spicy Wheat Gluten Sticks

The present study sought to evaluate the effects and mechanisms of mannitol and xylitol on the regeneration of spicy wheat gluten sticks (SWGSs) through texture profile analysis (TPA), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR). The rate constant of crystallization and the relative degree of crystallinity of SWGS substantially reduced with polyols addition after 4 weeks of storage at 4°C. The peaks near 3385 cm−1 and 1081 cm−1 in FTIR of SWGS became wider with the addition of mannitol and xylitol, indicating that mannitol and xylitol formed hydrogen bonds by binding to wheat starch. The DSC experiment results showed that the addition of mannitol and xylitol could reduce the Tp and ΔH of SWGS powder effectively under different storage times. The NMR results showed that the water in SWGS was mainly immobile water, and the addition of mannitol and xylitol could increase the content of bound water and immobile water in SWGS and reduce the water migration. These results provided deeper insights into the action mechanism of mannitol and xylitol in delaying the quality change of starch products during storage, thereby providing a reference for inhibiting SWGS regeneration. Therefore, it could be inferred that improving the quality of SWGS by adding polyol might have significant application prospects in the food industry.

Properties of Vietnamese water caltrop starch and formation of low glycemic index starch

This research investigates the properties and modification of water caltrop starch (WCS) with a particular focus on its potential for retrogradation and resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis. The study begins by obtaining WCS with a recovery efficiency of 4.5% (w/w in dry basis). The native WCS exhibits notable characteristics, including an apparent amylose content of 45.4%, a ratio of amorphous/α-helix regions at 1.341, a degree of relative crystallinity of 54.43%, an average molecular weight of 6.58×104 g/mole, and a degree of polymerization of 365.57. The high amylose content and degree of crystallinity in native WCS indicate its favorable retrogradation potential and resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis. Textural analysis of the WCS gel reveals high hardness and chewiness but low adhesiveness, which further supports its potential for retrogradation applications. To explore the effects of repeated retrogradation cycles, native WCS was subjected to 3, 6, and 9 cycles. The increase in retrogradation cycles led to a decrease in apparent amylose content from 31.79% to 29.34%. This reduction can be attributed to the formation of double helix associations and the emergence of new crystalline regions from amylose molecules. Furthermore, an increase in retrogradation cycles resulted in enhanced syneresis of starch. Interestingly, as the number of retrogradation cycles increased, the enzymatic hydrolysis rate of retrograded WCS gradually decreased. Correspondingly, the estimated glycemic index (GI) of the samples decreased, reaching a range of 50.05 to 38.46. Consequently, treatment with repeated retrogradation proves to be an effective strategy for producing modified WCS with a low glycemic index (<50%), thereby presenting promising opportunities for low glycemic index applications.

Recycling the Energy of Indoor Light: Highly Efficient Organic Photovoltaics via a Ternary Strategy

A ternary approach in organic photovoltaics (OPVs) is simple and reliable to effectively tune the optical, electrical, and morphological properties of the photoactive layer for high efficiency as well as long-term stability under 1 sun. However, there have been few papers reporting the benefits of ternary systems for recycling the energy of indoor light, which has narrow emission spectra and weak illumination compared to outdoor light. In this study, by using two compatible donor polymers (PM7 and PM7 D1) with slightly different band gaps and similar chemical structures, we demonstrate a simultaneous modulation of light absorption and molecular packing under ambient conditions, which resulted in efficient indoor OPVs exhibiting power conversion efficiency (PCE) over 20% under 1000 lx of warm white light-emitting diode (2900 K). From morphological analysis, we infer that PM7 serves to seed the nucleation of PM7 D1 in the ternary blend, templating its crystallization and alignment along the PM7 backbone. Such templating effect leads to increased domain spacing and relative degree of crystallinity (rDoC) compared to those of each binary system. We further show that higher rDoC helps suppress both bimolecular and trap-assisted recombination of photogenerated charges in the ternary devices. As a result, the complementary absorption and synergistic molecular assembly of the two donor polymers enhance the short-circuit current density as to increase the average PCEs from 9.6 to 10.3% under 1 sun and from 18.7 to 20.0% under 1000 lx. We envision that our strategy of incorporating both a planar and a flexible donor polymer with similar chemical structures can be generally applicable to attain a high-performance ternary OPV under both 1 sun and indoor light.

Role of Interfacial Interactions in the Graphene-Directed Assembly of Monolayer Conjugated Polymers.

Development of graphene-organic hybrid electronics is one of the most promising directions for next-generation electronic materials. However, it remains challenging to understand the graphene-organic semiconductor interactions right at the interface, which is key to designing hybrid electronics. Herein, we study the influence of graphene on the multiscale morphology of solution-processed monolayers of conjugated polymers (PII-2T, DPP-BTz, DPP2T-TT, and DPP-T-TMS). The strong interaction between graphene and PII-2T was manifested in the high fiber density and high film coverage of monolayer films deposited on graphene compared to plasma SiO2 substrates. The monolayer films on graphene also exhibited a higher relative degree of crystallinity and dichroic ratio or polymer alignment, i.e., higher degree of order. Raman spectroscopy revealed the increased backbone planarity of the conjugated polymers upon deposition on graphene as well as the existence of electronic interaction across the interface. This speculation was further substantiated by the results of photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS and UPS) of PII-2T, which showed a decrease in binding energy of several atomic energy levels, movement of the Fermi level toward HOMO, and an increase in work function, all of which indicate p-doping of the polymer. Our results provide a new level of understanding on graphene-polymer interactions at nanoscopic interfaces and the consequent impact on multiscale morphology, which will aid in the design of efficient graphene-organic hybrid electronics.

A marine fungus Alternaria alternata FB1 efficiently degrades polyethylene

Huge quantities of plastic wastes have been accumulating in the environment causing serious ecological problems and significantly impacting the global carbon cycling. Plastic pollutions have been recognized as the most common and durable marine contaminants. Consequently, the marine environment is becoming a hot spot to screen microorganisms possessing potential plastic degradation capabilities. Here, by screening hundreds of plastic waste-associated samples, we isolated a fungus (named Alternaria alternata FB1) that possessing a prominent capability of colonizing on the polyethylene (PE) film. Through Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) observation, we found this fungus could efficiently degrade the PE film and formed numerous obvious holes in the plastic surface. Moreover, the Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) imaging detected absorption peak in the vicinity of 1715 cm−1, indicating the formation of carbonyl bonds (-CO-). Through X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis, we found that the PE film treated by strain FB1 for 28 days showed an evident reduced relative crystallinity degree, resulting in a decrease from 62.79% to 52.02%. Strikingly, the molecular weight of PE film decreased 95% after 120 days treatment by strain FB1. Using GC-MS, we further clarified that a four-carbon product (named Diglycolamine) accounted for 93.28% of all degradation products. We defined 153 enzymes that potentially involved in the degradation of PE through a transcriptomic method. The degradation capabilities of two representative enzymes including a laccase (with a molecular weight about 59.49 kDa) and a peroxidase (with a molecular weight about 36.7 kDa) were verified. Lastly, a complete biodegradation process of PE was proposed. Given the extreme paucity of microorganisms and enzymes for effective degradation of PE in the present time, our study provides a compelling candidate for further investigation of degradation mechanisms and development of biodegradation products of PE.

Development of Starch Nanoparticle from Mango Kernel in Comparison with Cereal, Tuber, and Legume Starch Nanoparticles: Characterization and Cytotoxicity

AbstractStarch nanoparticles (SNPs) are developed from mango kernel starch and are compared with wheat, potato, mungbean, and water chestnut starch nanoparticles. The synthesized SNPs are investigated for their thermal properties, particle size, degree of relative crystallinity and cytotoxicity. The average particle size of SNPs from different botanical sources range from 100 to 514 nm. Mango kernel starch nanoparticles show the highest particle size. Starch nanoparticles from all botanical sources show X‐ray diffraction (XRD) patterns similar to their native counterpart starches. SNPs from wheat, mango kernel, and water chestnut show A‐type XRD patterns but the relative crystallinity of SNPs is observed to be higher as compared to native starches. From the thermogravimetric analysis, it is observed that degradation temperature for 10% loss weight vary significantly. The study reveals that mango kernel SNPs show good biocompatibility with human HeLa cell lines as compared to all other sources except water chestnut SNPs.

Polymorphic transitions of V-type amylose upon hydration and dehydration

In the current study, V6, V7 and V8 amyloses were prepared, their crystalline polymorphic transitions upon hydration at different moisture conditions examined by wide-angle X-ray diffraction (XRD), and the relative degrees of crystallinity calculated. Upon the formation of V7 or V8 crystals, the XRD peaks shifted to lower Bragg angles as compared to V6h due to the expansion of the amylose helices. Conditioning at 75% equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) transformed V6a and V7 amyloses to the V6h pattern. Long-term vapor hydration at 100% ERH or total hydration by immersion in water transformed all V-type XRD patterns to the B-type with decreased degrees of crystallinity. Upon dehydration by ethanol wash, the relative crystallinities of all V-type amyloses were increased, while the crystalline patterns remained mostly unchanged. Such explicit study of polymorphic transitions revealed by XRD can help establish optimal conditions for the encapsulation of bioactive compounds with V-type amyloses and provide insights for novel food product developments.

Resistant structure of extruded starch: Effects of fatty acids with different chain lengths and degree of unsaturation

This study investigated the formation mechanism of enzyme-resistant structures in extruded starch, specifically, fatty acid–starch complexes (FASCs). The effects of fatty acids (FAs) with different carbon-chain lengths (C12–C18) and degrees of unsaturation (C18:0–C18:2) on complex formation were evaluated, with fluorescence microscopy verifying complex formation. The complexed-lipid content and degree of relative crystallinity increased with the carbon-chain length and degree of FA unsaturation. FAs with fewer carbons were more likely to generate stable complexes (e.g., form II, melted at 100–120 °C), while FAs with more carbons tended to produce relatively unstable complexes (e.g., form I, melted at 80–100 °C). After reheating and cooling, a new amylose–lipid complex and an amylose-amylopectin network was formed in the unsaturated FASC samples, which restricted the penetration of enzymes into starch granules. A starch-linoleic acid complex exhibited the highest resistant starch content (15.7%) and lowest predicted glycaemic index (88.4).

Effects of microwave treatments and retrogradation on molecular crystalline structure and in vitro digestibility of debranched mung-bean starches

The objective of this study was to investigate morphology, molecular crystalline structure, and digestibility of debranched mung bean starches with or without microwave treatment and retrogradation at different temperature. The mung bean starch was firstly debranched with pullulanase, and then the debranched starch containing 20% moisture content was treated by microwave irradiation for 3 min with or without further retrograded at +25, +4, or −18 °C for 24 h. All treated starches exhibited the B + V-type crystalline polymorph as determined by the XRD and the 13CNMR. The FT-IR results showed that the debranched starches had lower degree of order but higher degree of double helix than those of the native starch. The microwave treatment or further recrystallization of the debranched starch for more 24 h significantly improved crystalline structure of starch granules with higher degree of relative crystallinity, degree of order, and degree of double helices. The resistant starch content of the treated starch was in a range of 39.7–52.8%, significantly higher than that of the native starch (15.6%). As a result, the microwave-assisted debranched starch with further crystallization for 24 h was found to have highly ordered structure of granules, which highly resisted to the enzyme digestion.

Synthesis and Characterizations of High Crystallized Clinoptilolite by Structure Directing Agent Method and its Crystallization Kinetics

AbstractThe clinoptilolites (CPs) with high purity were prepared via structure directing agent (SDA) method combining with hydrothermal method using silica sol as the silica source and aluminum hydroxide as the aluminum source. Their structural features were characterized by X‐ray diffraction (XRD) patterns, Fourier transform infrared (FT‐IR) spectra, thermal gravimetric (TG) analysis, scanning electron micrograph (SEM) images, 29Si nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) profiles. The effects of additive amount and aging time of used SDA, as well as synthetic parameters such as crystallization temperature and crystallization time on their structure and performance were emphasized. Particularly, the activation energies of their crystallization kinetics at different stages of induction period and growth period were calculated on the basis of Arrhenius equation. The results demonstrated that the obtained CPs presented the highest relative crystallinity when the additive amount of used SDA was 1 mL at aging periods of 2 d, otherwise, their relative crystallinity degree was low due to existences of a large number of heterocrystal impurities. Particularly, the apparent activation energy values for induction (En) and growth (Eg) profile were calculated by the Arrhenius equation. The En value (86.46 kJ/mol) of induction period was much higher than that Eg value (9.64 kJ/mol) of growth stage, suggesting that the induction period was the main controlling step during the synthetic CP. Finally, the synthetic CP was employed to preliminarily assess its performances for CH4/N2 separation. These demonstrations provide a promising method for the synthesis of CPs.

Effect of ABS on non-isothermal crystallization kinetics of polyamide 6

The investigations on the non-isothermal crystallization kinetics of polyamide 6 (PA6) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) blend have been conducted by differential scanning calorimeter. The growth of spherulites, in this blend system, is observed by polarized optical microscopy. The crystallinity and size of crystallites of the samples were measured using X-ray diffractometer. The Avrami, Ozawa and combined Avrami–Ozawa equations have been applied to determine the crystallization kinetics and parameters of crystallization. The effective activation energy $$\left( {\Delta E_{\rm X} } \right)$$ as a function of relative degree of crystallinity is determined using the Friedman equation. The value of $$\Delta E_{\rm X}$$ is found to vary with the relative degree of crystallinity, as well as with the amount of ABS in the blend. All these parameters obtained from different methods show the rate of crystallization is more in PA6 90 than PA6 100. The addition of ABS greater than 10% in the blend decreases the crystallization rate parameters.

Pulsed electric field pretreatment modifying digestion, texture, structure and flavor of rice

Pulsed electric field (PEF) is promising in food industry in modifying properties of materials. The influences of PEF pretreatment on hydrolysis, texture, multi-scale and semi-crystalline lamellar structure, thermal properties, and flavor of rice were investigated with two special treatments for high and low contents of slowly digestible starch and resistant starch, using enzymatic hydrolysis, scanning electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffractometry, small angle X-ray scattering, attenuated total-reflection Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry, texture profile analysis, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (MS)-MS. Upon PEF pretreatment, the starch hydrolysis degree and glycemic index of cooked rice increased slightly; the hardness, springiness, cohesiveness and chewiness of cooked rice increased significantly (P < 0.05). PEF reduced the integrity of cell structure, altered the gelatinization enthalpy, relative crystallinity degree, semi-crystalline layered structure of rice lightly, without obviously changing the diffractive pattern type of rice grains. PEF pretreatment caused decrease of phenols and ketones and increase of acids and aldehydes in cooked rice.

The molecular structure, morphology, and physicochemical property and digestibility of potato starch after repeated and continuous heat-moisture treatment.

The multiscale structural, physicochemical, and digestible properties of potato starch before and after heat-moisture treatment were investigated, and further compared between repeated heat-moisture treatment (RHMT) and continuous heat-moisture treatment (CHMT). After heat-moisture treatment, there appeared partial disruption and pits on the starch granules, and the birefringence edges of HMT starch particles became blurred. Besides, the molecular weight of samples conspicuously decreased after two kinds of treatments. The crystal type of HMT starches transformed from B-type to C-type according to X-ray analysis. A decrease in the solubility and swelling power in high temperatures were identified. The pasting temperature, the gelatinization transition temperature (To , Tp , Tc ), and the slowly digestible starch (SDS) content of HMT starches were significantly higher than native potato starch, while the peak viscosity, the trough viscosity, the final viscosity, the breakdown, and the gelatinization enthalpy (ΔH) of RHMT and CHMT potato starches decreased compared to the native. RHMT potato starches displayed significantly higher relative crystallinity degree and gelatinization transition temperatures. The cooling process of RHMT in which the linkage between the recombinant amylose/amylopectin was enhanced compared with CHMT, which contributed to that RHMT potato starches exhibited greater advantages in practical applications. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The described RHMT and CHMT starches provide new ideas for the study of modified starch. Furthermore, this study revealed the mechanism of heat-moisture processing provided some instructions to the application of RHMT potato starch.

Inhibition effect of three common proanthocyanidins from grape seeds, peanut skins and pine barks on maize starch retrogradation

The inhibition effect of three common proanthocyanidins (PA) on the retrogradation properties of maize starch was investigated (including grape seed proanthocyanidins (GSPA), peanut skin proanthocyanidins (PSPA), and pine bark proanthocyanidins (PBPA)). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed that PA could significantly decrease the values of melting enthalpy of retrogradation (ΔHr) and the degree of relative crystallinity, suggesting that the starch re-crystallization was retarded by PA. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) characterizations illustrated that retrograded PA-starch samples formed a looser matrix with less appearance of continuous flakes during storage. Overall, 0.5 %–2.0 % of three PAs exhibited suppression of starch retrogradation after 21-day cooling storage, mainly resulting from the PA-starch interaction. Among them, PSPA showed the most substantial inhibition effect on starch retrogradation, which might be attributed to its structural features. This study suggested that PA could be a new type of inhibitor to suppress starch retrogradation.

Effects of low temperature at stem elongation stage on the development, morphology, and physicochemical properties of wheat starch

The low temperature in spring is a meteorological problem in wheat production because it leads to yield reduction and alteration of wheat quality. In this study, an artificial low-temperature treatment (LTT) at the stem elongation stage was implemented to investigate the starch granule development and physical and chemical properties of wheat starch. Results showed that the agronomic traits of spike, such as spike length, spikelet number per spike, and grain number per spikelet, decreased after LTT. LTT promoted the development of starch granules in developing grains at 15 days post-anthesis, resulting in increased B-type granules and reduced C-type granules with an irregular shape in mature grains. The swelling power of the starch granules was reduced, but their solubility was enhanced by LTT. The proportion of the amorphous structure within the granules increased, but the crystalline component decreased after LTT, leading to a significant reduction in the relative degree of crystallinity and double- and single-helix structures. Three types of hydrolysis showed that starch in LTT was easy to hydrolyze, resulting in a high degree of hydrolysis. The findings suggest that low temperature at the stem elongation stage can not only reduce the yield parameters of spike but also alter starch accumulation, thereby affecting the processability and structure characteristics of starch in wheat grains.

Physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of mung-bean starches varying amylose contents under citric acid and hydrothermal treatments

In this study, starches of three mung bean cultivars (Vigna radiata) having different amylose contents were isolated and modified using a combination of citric acid and heat-moisture treatment (CA-HMT) or a combination of citric acid and annealing treatment (CA-ANN). Physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of native and treated mung bean starches were investigated. Resistant starch (RS) contents of the high-amylose, medium-amylose and low-amylose starches treated with CA-ANN were 41.1%, 35.7% and 27.1%, respectively, being higher than those treated with CA-HMT or native starches in the same variety. The CA-ANN did not affect the morphology and crystallinity of the starches. However, the starches treated by the CA-HMT were partly gelatinized and had higher degree of relative crystallinity as compared to the native starches. The DP¯s, swelling power, and viscosity of the treated starches were significantly lower than those of the native starches. The high-amylose mung bean starch was greatly affected by the treatments rather than medium- or low-amylose mung bean starch.

Tuning the Mechanical Properties of a Polymer Semiconductor by Modulating Hydrogen Bonding Interactions

Conjugation breakers (CBs) with different H-bonding chemistries and linker flexibilities are designed and incorporated into a diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP)-based conjugated polymer backbone. The effects of H-bonding interactions on polymer semiconductor morphology, mechanical properties, and electrical performance are systematically investigated. We observe that CBs with an H-bonding self-association constant >0.7 or a denser packing tendency are able to induce higher polymer chain aggregation and crystallinity in as-casted thin films, resulting in a higher modulus and crack on-set strain. Additionally, the rDoC (relative degree of crystallinity) of the stretched thin film with the highest crack on-set strain only suffers a small decrease, suggesting the main energy dissipation mechanism is the breakage of H-bonding interactions. By contrast, other less stretchable polymer films dissipate strain energy through the breakage of crystalline domains, indicated by a drastic decrease in rDoC. Furthermore, we evaluate their electrical performances under mechanical strain in fully stretchable field-effect transistors. The polymer with the highest crack on-set strain has the least degradation in mobility as a function of strain. Overall, these observations suggest that we can aptly tune the mechanical properties of a polymer semiconductor by modulating intermolecular interactions, such as H-bonding chemistry and linker flexibility. Such understanding provides molecular design guidelines for future stretchable semiconductors.

Ultrasonic modification of purple taro starch (Colocasia esculenta B. Tini): structural, psychochemical and thermal properties

Purple taro tubers (Colocasia esculenta B. Tini) were used in extraction of starch by aqueous methodology. After isolation, the starch was characterised and subjected to physical modification by ultrasound technique, using different amplitudes (40, 50 and 60%). Starch characterisation was performed by thermal analysis, pasting properties, X-ray powder diffractometry and high-resolution scanning electron microscopy. The root presented high carbohydrate content and low protein and lipid content. The apparent amylose content obtained from native starch was 26.45%. From thermal analysis, three major mass loss events were observed for all samples, and due the modification, an increase in thermal stability was achieved. There was a decrease in transition temperatures during the gelatinisation process after sonicated samples. The degree of relative crystallinity was lower for modified starches. An increase in peak and final viscosities was observed for physically modified samples, accompanied by a decrease in pasting temperature. The size of the granules showed a slight decrease, and agglomerations were not observed in this studied amplitude range.

Role of Multivalent Interactions in Dynamic-Template-Directed Assembly of Conjugated Polymers

Dynamic-template-directed assembly is a promising method to enhance molecular ordering and electronic properties of solution-coated polymer semiconductor thin films over large area. In this work, we establish that multicomponent dynamic templates of complimentary chemistries can promote polymer crystallization through cooperative multivalent interactions. We investigate this phenomenon using a combination of templating substrates including a fluoropolymer, a hydrogen-bonded liquid and an ionic liquid. Template-dependent multiscale morphology is studied by a comprehensive set of characterization techniques to understand how introducing diverse chemical moieties modulates polymer assembly. Our results clearly confirm synergistic effect between components of complimentary chemistries constituting the dynamic template. The relative degree of crystallinity is improved by 50-150% for films deposited on multicomponent dynamic templates compared to their neat constituents. In addition, macroscopic alignment is increased significantly (2 to 5 times) compared to single-component templates. As a result, highly anisotropic charge transport is observed with apparent hole mobilities up to 3.6 cm2V-1s-1. In contrast, such synergistic effect is not observed when using multicomponent dynamic template of comparable chemistries (i.e. ionic liquid and polymerized ionic liquid). We elucidate the origin of this synergistic effect through a combination of attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and isothermal titration calorimetry. When the dynamic template is comprised of two or more components interacting with complementary binding sites on the conjugated polymer (esp. backbone vs. side chain), the template-polymer interactions is significantly enhanced compared to the sum of single component contributions. These results provide valuable insights on surface-directed conjugated polymer crystallization during large-area solution coating. Template dynamics is rarely studied, and represents a new opportunity for guiding assembly of soft functional matter.