Reintegration Of Child Soldiers Research Articles

Children affected by armed conflict – reintegration of child-soldiers from the International Humanitarian Law perspective

The recruitment and use of minors in armed conflicts, which is contrary to humanitarian law, applies to any race, religion, or political system. Still, there is a harmful tendency to associate this problem only with undemocratic, poor, and underdeveloped countries, far from the large geopolitical decision-making centers. Most children are abducted, intimidated, coerced, and manipulated by actors of armed conflicts, both formally functioning in the state apparatus as soldiers, but also guerrillas, members of terrorist groups or other non-state entities. Minors are not only witnesses of brutality and suffering but are also forced to participate in torture and murder. This, in turn, causes traumatic mental reactions, such as depression, suicide attempts or lack of sensitivity to harm as adults. Hence, the reintegration of child soldiers is a long-term and troublesome process also for their families and communities, which, nevertheless, do not receive sufficient help at the mental, financial, and logistical level to be able to take care of the returning children. Global solutions still fail to deliver the expected solutions, to the detriment of children’s development and rights.

Labor Markets in Contexts of War: Recruitment and Trafficking of Child Soldiers in Colombia

Objective/context: The article aims to analyze child recruitment as a form of human trafficking. Beyond the theoretical perspectives that focus on security or rights, it addresses the topic as a form of unfree labor. By means of a case study focused on child recruitment by right-wing paramilitary groups in Colombia, the paper analyzes how children entered and exited illegal armed groups, the functions they performed, and the exploitation they endured. The research argues that child recruitment operates as a large-scale labor-market uptake in the wartime social order, where the “employers” are paramilitary groups, and the labor force, in part, consists of children and adolescents. Methodology: This case study relies on different sources of information: a database on child recruitment provided by the special Justice and Peace Unit of the Colombian Attorney General’s Office (989 cases between 1981 and 2005), sentences of Peace and Justice, testimonials given by victims in judicial processes, and semi-structured interviews with different actors. Conclusions: The paper shows that child recruitment as a form of trafficking is functional to wartime social order in contexts of poverty and inequality. There is demand and supply; thus, both girls and boys, who worked as soldiers, are not only victims but also agents that make decisions in challenging conditions. Therefore, if the socioeconomic options for these children, even after their demobilization from the armed group, are still a choice between bad and worse, joining a violent (no longer “armed” but “criminal”) group will remain a feasible alternative. Originality: The article contributes to the academic literature on a recent topic, such as the overlapping between child recruitment and human trafficking in armed conflict and post-conflict situations. It also contributes to the literature on “unfree labor,” as the study focuses on an actor (illegal armed groups) that has not been analyzed until now. Finally, the research demonstrates the limits of understanding human trafficking (and child recruitment as a form of trafficking) as a problem of security or rights entitlement. It highlights the analytical and political advantages of categories such as “unfree labor” to provide effective solutions for the prevention and reintegration of child soldiers.

Research handbook on child soldiersByMark A.DrumblJastine C.Barrett (Eds.), Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2019. ISBN 9781789903324, 542 pp., £45 (pb)

Research Handbook on Child Soldiers engages with an interdisciplinary understanding of child soldiers in the Global South as well as the Global North. Drumbl and Barrett brings together scholars from six continents with a variety of disciplinary perspectives including: psychology, social work, law, criminology, political science, sociology, literary theory, medical anthropology and ethnography. This diversity is important due to the complex journey child soldiers face from the moment of becoming a child soldier until their successful (or failed) reintegration into the society. A central theme throughout the edited collection focuses on the victim-perpetrator dichotomy which is explained and substantiated by analysing interviews with former child soldiers, extracting from various regulatory frameworks as well as drawing from leading academics in the field. The book largely focuses on African conflicts; however, several conflicts in the Global North and the Middle East are also discussed. The book deals with four central themes. Part I deals with the concept and construction of child soldiers. The concept of children being born into an armed group and subsequently becoming child soldiers has not been researched widely and this is a welcoming addition to the field. Another ground-breaking feature of the Handbook includes an analysis of sexual violence experienced by boy soldiers. International Tribunals are rightfully criticised for neglecting this abhorrent practice. Also, the normalisation of child soldiering through social media and advertisement campaigns are clear examples of how governments are targeting children for participation in the military. Part II deals with the conduct of child soldiers in terms of Agency, Capacity and Resilience. This part is an examination of the agency of child soldiers and whether they have a choice to partake and leave an armed group. An important study on Islamic State of Iraq and Syria reveals that parents actually encourage their own children to join the terrorist group, different to sub-Saharan Africa where most parents will not encourage such behaviour. A study on children born in captivity in Uganda explores how these children called the bush their home and felt isolated and lost once they were disarmed and had to acclimatise to live as a ‘normal’ child. This analysis debunks the theory that all child soldiers are forcefully recruited. This book provides insightful ways to explore the unique participation of children in armed conflict. Part III deals with child soldiers and their encounters with the law. The role of child soldiers as perpetrators, victims and witnesses in criminal trials has largely been overlooked by academics. This book addresses several related aspects and explains that child soldiers should not be excluded from participating in criminal trials, especially as victims and witnesses. The book does not denounce the prosecution of child soldiers but emphasises the importance of providing a platform for such children to talk about their atrocities. Such a coherent and holistic approach is ideal as it involves the victims of the crimes as well. Part IV examines various aspects of the rehabilitation and reintegration of child soldiers. This section expertly juxtaposes the traditional justice and reconciliation methods such as voluntary cleansing ceremonies versus the western rehabilitation programmes of which many do not implement traditional methods. The book highlights that most children just wanted to feel part of the community again and these alternative forms of justice in many instances paved the way for their rehabilitation and reconciliation. The book furthermore raises serious ethical concerns about rehabilitation programmes which is of great concern to the reintegration of former child soldiers. This book is of interest to practitioners, academics and other related parties. It enhances the conversations related to combating the practice of child soldiering. It is critical and engages the reader with thought-provoking debates on the plight of child soldiers. At times, the book warns against complacency and encourages further research and debate on the topic. Drumbl and Barrett have put together the ultimate manual on child soldiering.

Congolese Child Soldier Narratives for Global and Local Audiences

Abstract The article examines narratives by and about former child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a hitherto neglected corpus despite the topicality of child soldiering in African literatures after 2000. Critical readings of three testimonial texts that have been published in France are juxtaposed with the analysis of one testimonial narrative and one youth novel that have been published in Kinshasa. The editorial framing and narrative strategies that speak to different audiences located in different literary fields are identified. The popularity of testimonial narratives in the West relies on the depiction of violence and the iconic function of the child soldier in medial and human rights discourses. By contrast, narratives about the reconciliation and the reintegration of child soldiers prevail in the DRC. Thus, the different functions of global and local narratives on the sensitive issue of children at war are exposed.

The Effects of Intrastate War and Reintegration on Liberian Child Soldiers: Part II

The main focus of this article is on the effects of intrastate war and the reintegration of Liberian child soldiers into their families and former communities. In this context, legal frameworks for the protection of children, types of recruitment (forced, persuasive, and “voluntary”), reasons for recruitment, and the need for personal protection are dealt with. Also discussed are disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration processes, roles of communities, provision of psycho-social support and care to reintegrated child soldiers, the physical, social and emotional effects they experience, their reintegration into communities, social networks, the disengagement of children from former commanders, and the skills training options provided to these children. In this empirical, qualitative study, primary data was obtained from focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews, and secondary data was obtained from documentary sources. Some of the primary data substantiated the secondary data, confirming the finding that war caused profound damage and heartache but that it also helped children to become resilient. The study found that the brutal effects of war, culminating in the reintegration of child soldiers into communities, manifested themselves over many years.

NGO strategy toward the reintegration of child soldiers in Liberia, Africa: An online survey of services, roles, and activities

This research investigates the roles of international and local non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in Liberia 10 years after the 14-year civil war ended in 2003. Soldiers of the war included a large number of child soldiers who are currently combatants at differing levels and phases of reintegration into society. A survey was conducted to generate descriptive empirical information about the roles NGOs play in ex-combatants’ reintegration and the knowledge, skills, and training needed to assist ex-combatants. Communicative and emerging social technologies appear, according to survey results, to also contribute to NGO service delivery.

Thinking Beyond the Escape: Evaluating the Reintegration of Child Soldiers in Uganda

While the Lord’s Resistance Army has gained notoriety for its brutal tactics and abduction of Ugandan children, little attention has been given to the return and reintegration of these formerly abducted child soldiers. The absence of a formal reintegration program in Uganda has placed the burden of reintegration on international NGOs, but reliance on non-local organizations to successfully reintegrate child soldiers has proven challenging. This paper seeks to evaluate whether the process of reintegration in Uganda has been successful. With an overwhelming lack of up to date and methodologically sound research, variables such as PTSD, domestic violence, alcoholism, violent crime, and primary education rates are evaluated to indicate the current state of Northern Uganda. These variables indicate an unstable environment in Northern Uganda and suggest reintegration has proven unsuccessful in the Acholi region. The successful reintegration of child soldiers is demonstrated to be not merely a Ugandan issue, but an international issue.

Harnessing traditional practices for use in the reintegration of child soldiers in Africa

The changing nature of armed con£ict has been characterised by the use of children as soldiers. The disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of these children back into society has become a primary concern for post con£ict African countries seeking to achieve a sustainable peace. Studies have emphasised the crucial role of a participatory approach as an important factor in ensuring success in reintegration programmes. However, limited attention has been given to traditional cultural practices, such as ritual and cleansing ceremonies for child soldiers, in addressing psychosocial problems as essential components of reintegration.This paper, therefore, focuses on the crucial role and eiectiveness of traditional cultural practices within the reintegration of child soldiers in post con£ict Liberia and Burundi. Data are derived from content analysis of studies on the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration programmes. The author argues that traditional cultural practices are integral to the success of reintegration of child soldiers in post con£ict African states.

Attaching and detaching: the successful reintegration of child soldiers

Why do some former child soldiers reintegrate more successfully into civil society than others? We attempt to understand this variation by looking at their personal experiences within the armed groups instead of focusing on the reintegration programme design. We hypothesise that, besides other factors, successful reintegration depends on the level of attachment felt towards the armed group. In other words, if a former child soldier feels a high level of attachment to the armed group, the reintegration process back into society might be more difficult. To examine this possible linkage, we examine a unique data set based on 66 interviews with Ugandan former child soldiers. Our analysis shows that those former child soldiers who still feel a higher level of trust towards the armed group are less likely to trust the members of their home community and feel accepted by them.

Reintegration of child soldiers in Burundi: a tracer study

BackgroundSubstantial attention and resources are aimed at the reintegration of child soldiers, yet rigorous evaluations are rare.MethodsThis tracer study was conducted among former child soldiers (N=452) and never-recruited peers (N=191) who participated in an economic support program in Burundi. Socio-economic outcome indicators were measured retrospectively for the period before receiving support (T1; 2005–06); immediately afterwards (T2; 2006–07); and at present (T3; 2010). Participants also rated present functional impairment and mental health indicators.ResultsParticipants reported improvement on all indicators, especially economic opportunity and social integration. At present no difference existed between both groups on any of the outcome indicators. Socio-economic functioning was negatively related with depression- and, health complaints and positively with intervention satisfaction.ConclusionThe present study demonstrates promising reintegration trajectories of former child soldiers after participating in a support program.

The Role of Rituals in Healing Trauma and Reconciliation in Post-accord Peacebuilding

Western approaches to reintegration of child soldiers to communities are still dominant; yet there is increasing awareness of indigenous cultural practices of reintegration (Wessells, 2006). Cultural understanding of health, trauma and healing are crucial because people express and construe their sufferings locally (Honwana, 1988). Wessells and Jonah (2006) write that some people consider exsoldiers as hardened killers who have been abused and forced to do violence, and have become 'damaged goods,' having little chance of reintegration or recovering. Honwana (1999, 2006) mentions that people who murder or see people being murdered become contaminated spiritually according to traditional beliefs. It is believed that contamination originates from contact with death and bloodshed. Those people become polluted by the spirits of dead persons and are likely to contaminate the social body of the community. In times of crisis, rituals perform a significant role in healing children affected by war. In spite of the criticism of healing rituals that they do not ensure long-term psychological healing of child soldiers (Wessells, 2006), it is acknowledged that healing and reintegration strategies should be based on local practices to be sustainable and effective. The social integration should be accompanied with social development to reduce poverty (Honwana, 2006).

The disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of child soldiers: social and psychological transformation in Sierra Leone

This article gives an overview of the processes of disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of child soldiers in Sierra Leone. In contrast to many other situations, in Sierra Leone there has been an effective, integrated response involving a large number of civil society organizations and commi