Reindeer Management Research Articles

Investigating the domestication and early management of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in the Sámi archaeological context from teeth geometric morphometrics

For centuries, reindeer herding has been an integral part of the subsistence, lifeways, economy and cosmology of the Sámi of northern Fennoscandia. Despite its importance, the timing and details of early reindeer domestication are still highly debated. Identifying domesticated individuals in the archaeological record remains complicated due to the presence of two interbreeding subspecies in Fennoscandia and a mixed socio-economic organisation by Sámi populations, which was mainly a combination of wild reindeer hunting and small-scale reindeer herding. This study proposes methodological improvement for identifying domestic individuals using 2D landmark and sliding semi-landmark based geometric morphometrics on the isolated lower molars of 389 modern specimens, and 90 teeth from four archaeological sites in Finnish Lapland. Our results indicate that despite the significant impact of wear on overall tooth morphology, our protocol is very useful for identifying subspecies (classification accuracy of the two species is between 78 and 91% depending on the wear class) and understanding the morphological changes induced by the domestication process. We suggest that the morphological variation observable among modern populations has been impacted by recent changes in herding strategies in northern Fennoscandia, and that the archaeological domesticated reindeer populations were relatively different, probably due to selection by the Sámi. This study also highlights the importance of using other direct evidence or contextual archaeological data to better trace the early evidence of a domesticated reindeer economy in northern Fennoscandia, and aid in reconstructing the socio-economic changes in Sámi populations over time.

Challenges and opportunities using hunters to monitor chronic wasting disease among wild reindeer in the digital era

Abstract Surveillance of wildlife diseases poses considerable logistical challenges compared to that of humans or livestock. Citizen science can enable broader coverage, but building an efficient disease monitoring system that relies on hunters is challenging. Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a lethal and infectious prion disease of cervids. Improving surveillance is important with the detection of CWD in wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in Norway. This study describes the components of an efficient CWD monitoring system utilizing recreational hunters. We report the success of data capture after 6 years of surveillance. We provide an overview of CWD occurrence among the 24 wild reindeer areas and quantify the likelihood of disease absence in areas without detection. Surveillance aimed to test hunted reindeer aged ≥1 year. With higher quotas and extended hunting seasons, proactive surveillance was implemented in at‐risk areas. There were several challenges of population demarcation and the lack of surveys required for risk‐based sampling. Several specific tools for hunters have been developed, including digital apps for rapid reporting and feedback. Laboratory capacity was expanded, and novel statistical tools were developed for the specifics of the sampled tissues. The surveillance (2016–2021) achieved a sample return rate of 61.5% from a maximum of 22,123 harvested reindeer aged ≥1 year. Among these, 64.1% included both relevant tissues (retropharyngeal lymph nodes and brain), yielding 9412 (42.5%) complete samples of harvested reindeer. Samples originating from harvest constituted ~84% of total wild reindeer samples. CWD was detected in 2 of the 24 wild reindeer management areas. The remaining populations had a probability of CWD‐freedom from 60% to 99% (mean = 77%) at a design prevalence of 0.5%. Utilizing hunters to monitor wildlife disease appears to be the most realistic option for cervid species. However, the logistical and economic constraints are substantial and pose long‐term challenges. Considerable uncertainty about disease occurrence remains even after massive surveillance, and whether management should take preventive actions remains a challenge.

Winter condition variability decreases the economic sustainability of reindeer husbandry.

Wild and semidomesticated reindeer are one of the key species in Arctic and subarctic areas, and their population dynamics are closely tied to winter conditions. Difficult snow conditions have been found to decrease the calving success and survivability of reindeer, but the economic effects of variation in winter conditions on reindeer husbandry have not been studied. In this study, we combine state-of-the-art economic-ecological modeling with the analysis of annual reindeer management reports from Finland. These contain local knowledge of herding communities. We quantify the occurrence probabilities of different types of winters from annual management reports and analyze the effects of this variation in winter conditions on reindeer husbandry using an age- and sex-structured bioeconomic reindeer-lichen model. Our results show that difficult winters decrease the net revenues of reindeer husbandry. However, they also protect lichen pastures from grazing, thereby increasing future net revenues. Nonetheless, our solutions show that the variability of winter conditions overall decrease the net income of herders compared to constant winter conditions. Low lichen biomass appears to make reindeer management more sensitive to the effects of difficult winter conditions. We also found that it is economically sensible to use supplementary feeding during difficult winters, but the net revenues still decrease compared to average winters because of the high feeding costs. Overall, our analysis suggests that the increasing variability of winter conditions due to climate change will decrease net revenues in reindeer husbandry. This decrease will still occur even if the most extreme effects of climate change do not occur. This study shows that combining a state-of-the-art bioeconomic model and practitioner knowledge can bring compatible insights, ideas, results, and a bottom-up perspective to the discussion.

Pulse grazing by reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) can increase the phylogenetic diversity of vascular plant communities in the Fennoscandian tundra.

Herbivore grazing is an important determinant of plant community assemblages. Thus, it is essential to understand its impact to direct conservation efforts in regions where herbivores are managed. While the impacts of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) grazing on plant biodiversity and community composition in the Fennoscandian tundra are well studied, the impact of reindeer grazing on phylogenetic community structure is not. We used data from a multiyear quasi‐experimental study in northern Fennoscandia to analyze the effect of reindeer grazing on plant community diversity including its phylogenetic structure. Our study design used a permanent fence constructed in the 1960s and temporary fences constructed along the permanent fence to expose plant communities to three different grazing regimes: light (almost never grazed), pulse (grazed every other year), and press (chronic grazing for over 40 years). Similar to previous studies on low productivity ecosystems in this region, the species richness and evenness of plant communities with pulse and press grazing did not differ from communities with light grazing. Also consistent with previous studies in this region, we observed a transition from shrub‐dominated communities with light grazing to graminoid‐dominated communities with pulse and press grazing. Interestingly, communities with pulse, but not press, grazing were more phylogenetically dispersed than communities with light grazing. If grazing pulses can increase the phylogenetic diversity of plant communities, our result suggests changes in reindeer management allowing for pulses of grazing to increase phylogenetic diversity of plant communities.

Impact of selection and domestication on hindlimb bones of modern reindeer populations: Archaeological implications for early reindeer management by Sámi in Fennoscandia

ABSTRACT For centuries, reindeer herding has been an integral part of the subsistence and culture among the Sámi of northern Fennoscandia. Despite the importance of this husbandry in their history, the timing and details of early reindeer domestication are still highly debated. Indeed, identifying domesticated individuals in the archaeological record remains complicated because reindeer are still considered to be in the early phases of the domestication process. In this work, we propose solutions for identifying domestic individuals using 3D geometric morphometrics on isolated elements from the long bones of the hindlimb in modern reindeer populations. These bones are important for understanding both the mobility of reindeer and the effect of load carrying or draught. A good level of distinction between the size and shape variables of these bones was found among subspecies, sex and lifestyles. This demonstrates that the long bones of the hindlimb can provide information on changes in locomotor behaviour induced by the domestication process, such as control and reduction of reindeer mobility by humans. This also demonstrates that analysis in geometric morphometrics is useful for exploring the use of draught reindeer in early Sámi reindeer herding and the implications for understanding reindeer domestication and early reindeer herding strategies.

Land-use and climate related drivers of change in the reindeer management system in Finland: Geography of perceptions

Drivers of change in the reindeer management system are rather well-known. But when developing the governance to support the traditional livelihoods, it is crucial to understand also practitioner perceptions. Systematic research on these is lacking. We analyzed the land-use and climate related drivers within the reindeer management area (RMA) in Finland, and, using a perception geography approach, studied the herder perceptions towards these. We conducted an on-site questionnaire survey with herders from 51 herding districts. Factors directly affecting the welfare of reindeer were perceived as crucial by herders, for example basal icing affecting the forage availability, and land-use related factors limiting the seasonal pasture access. Perceptions of herders on biophysical factors were rather homogeneous. The regional heterogeneities in perceptions towards land-use related factors could be explained by spatial differences in land-use and varying herding traditions. Cumulative land-use impacts raised particular concerns. Our approach can be utilized in the co-planning of the northern land-use and more widely in the co-management of natural resources.

Optimal foraging by a large ungulate in an extreme environment: Wild mountain reindeer select snow-free feeding habitats in winter.

Optimal foraging models predict that individual animals will optimize net energy gain by intensifying forage activity and/or reducing forage energy cost. Then, the free distribution model predicts an animal's distribution in a patchy landscape will match the distribution of the resources. If not modified by other factors, such patterns may be expected to be particularly explicit in variable and extreme, forage‐limited, and patchy environments, notably alpine and Arctic environments during winter. The large ungulate wild mountain reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) surviving in such environments is used as a model during the forage‐limited winter season. The largest wild reindeer area in Western Europe (Hardangervidda, 8130 km2) is actively managed to sustain 10,000–12,000 wild reindeer. Since 2001, 104 different individuals have been GPS‐tracked at 3‐hr intervals. In winter, mountain reindeer may either choose to seek out and forage in patchy snow‐free habitats, typically on top of wind‐blown ridges, or use energy‐demanding digging through the snow to reach ground forage (cratering). We use late April satellite data from Landsat 5 and 8 (30 × 30 m), airborne laser scanning subsampling (processed to 1 × 1 m grid), and topographic information (1 m resolution) derived from digital aerial photographs (0.25 × 0.25 m resolution) to delineate snow‐free patches, constituting less than 694 km2. By overlaying recorded wild reindeer GPS positions winters 2001–2017 (188,942 positions), we document a strong positive selection for snow‐free patches, which were used about four times more frequently than expected from a “random walk” model. On a daily basis, the preference for snow‐free areas was slightly stronger in the evenings. In the sustainable management of wild mountain reindeer, the area of snow‐free patches is an important predictor of winter forage availability and important winter source areas. It may be derived from remote sensing data.

How Reindeer Herders Cope with Harsh Winter Conditions in Northern Finland: Insights from an Interview Study

Reindeer herding involves hard physical work carried out in a cold climate under variable weather conditions. In the fall and winter, herders’ work in northern Finland includes collecting and moving reindeer herds to round-up sites, working in round-ups, slaughtering and processing meat as well as daily feeding and monitoring of the animals in the field. To study the experiences and perceptions of coping with cold among physically active herders in harsh winter conditions, we interviewed 22 herders from six herding districts of the central reindeer management area within the north boreal coniferous forest zone. We focused on behavioral and cultural strategies that accompany the physiological cold adaptations. Semi-structured interviews revealed that the main behavioral and cultural strategies used by herders to successfully carry out their duties while avoiding cold-related injury include clothing, physical activity, nutrition, and shelter as well as protecting vehicles and devices. Herders across sex, age, and herding district reported using modern layered clothing developed for extreme conditions, often combined with traditional footwear and clothes made of reindeer fur or woollen fabric. In addition, herders increase their physical activity; eat warm, energy-rich foods; make fires; stay overnight or take breaks in a house or a cabin, a car, or other protected places to reduce exposure to the harsh environment. Coping with extreme conditions not only requires flexibility, preparedness, and innovation from the herders but also thoughtful caution when approaching and managing unexpected situations. We conclude that modernization of reindeer husbandry, climate change, and rapidly increasing land use competition not only drive herders to modify their behavioral and cultural coping mechanisms for extreme weather conditions but may also create new, unexpected vulnerabilities.

Earliest archaeological evidence for domesticated reindeer economy among the Sámi of Northeastern Fennoscandia AD 1300 onwards

The domestication of the reindeer among the Sámi of Northern Fennoscandia is a pressing question for the archaeology of the area and has wider relevance to animal domestication studies globally. Despite considerable research activity, many details of reindeer domestication and early reindeer management remain unclear. This paper explores the use of draught reindeer in early Sámi reindeer herding and the implications for understanding reindeer domestication and early reindeer herding strategies. Faunal assemblages from three Sámi dwelling sites in Northeastern Fennoscandia (AD 1300–1800) were subjected to radiocarbon dating and analysis of palaeopathological lesions, entheseal changes and osteometric measurements. The results suggest that working reindeer were present in the archaeological assemblages from AD 1300 onwards. This is the earliest direct evidence of draught reindeer use by the Sámi. It predates the earliest unequivocal historical sources on draught reindeer use, and confirms the hypothesis that draught reindeer were important in early reindeer herding. Our results show that that small-scale reindeer herding was integrated into the subsistence strategy of the Sámi of Northeastern Fennoscandia earlier than previously suggested. Furthermore, the results imply that training and working together with reindeer were ways of constructing the domestication relationship between the Sámi and reindeer.

What drives reindeer management in Finland towards social and ecological tipping points?

Reindeer management (RM) in northern Fennoscandia is an example of social-ecological systems (SESs) providing social, cultural, ecological, and economic values. Changing climate and pasture conditions and societal changes continue to transform the operational environment of RM. These key drivers, and resulting transformations including alternative SES states, have not been studied in detail before. Our comprehensive literature review and interviews with herders reveal that land use, climate change, and governance drive the emergence of SES tipping points. The basis of successful RM depends on the quantity and quality of pastures to secure animal fitness. However, intensive forestry, extreme weather, and predators constrain the availability of forage and suitable calving grounds. Maintaining RM by means of predation compensation mechanisms and regular supplementary winter feeding to adapt to changes brought about by land use and warming climate comprises an alternative system state. However, if negative impacts increase remarkably or rapidly and compensatory mechanisms become insufficient, long-term impacts on system identity, and even local collapses, are expected. Although some environmental and societal changes are perceived as pressures by herders, they can be beneficial for other livelihoods in the region. Therefore, our study raises questions for future studies on social justice, such as who has the right to decide what constitutes a desirable system state, or what collaborative efforts to maintain RM in Fennoscandia would entail. Our work is applicable also in other Arctic/sub-Arctic regions where nature-based livelihoods, such as small-scale forestry and agriculture, hunting, traditional fishing, and gathering are practiced.

Hunting quotas, selectivity and stochastic population dynamics challenge the management of wild reindeer

Wildlife managers adjust harvest quotas based on population changes and specific management goals, like controlling population size and demography or minimizing human-�wildlife interactions. However, establishing quotas that best meet these goals can be challenging due to e.g. population fluctuations, climate change, and bias or variation in harvest effort. High-Arctic Svalbard reindeer Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus experience strong interannual variation in population size and demographic structure due to environmental stochasticity. Here, we analyzed the demographic and spatial bias of reindeer harvest in relation to quota regulations, hunter preferences, and population dynamics. Despite the protective management goal to avoid demographic impacts, 30 yr of data revealed that the harvest was consistently biased towards yearlings and male adults. This hunting selectivity resulted from both hunter preferences and the coarse license categories separating ‘calf’, ‘yearling or female adult’, and ‘free choice’ licenses. We developed Bayesian multinomial likelihood models to account for hunting selectivity and optimize annual quota distributions among license categories using population monitoring data. Optimized annual quota distributions varied strongly due to demographic fluctuations associated with strong climate variability, whereas simulated harvest offtakes showed that the protective management goal is inherently challenged by the coarse license categories. Although on average, only 7% of the hunted population was harvested annually, we found strong spatial variation in harvest pressure, with potential implications for spatial population dynamics. Our adaptive management approach accounting for hunting selectivity and demographic fluctuations can be of general relevance for harvested species in stochastic environments.

Predation costs and compensations in reindeer husbandry

Conflicts often arise when large predators and free‐ranging livestock share a common area. Various compensation schemes are used to attempt solving these conflicts, but the costs of predation to suffering stakeholders are often unknown. Semi‐domesticated reindeer husbandry and large carnivores form one such system, where conflicts between predator conservation and the traditional livelihood are common. We apply an age‐ and sex‐structured reindeer‐lichen model to examine the effects of predation on reindeer management. Based on the previous studies we specify age‐ and sex‐class‐specific mortalities due to various predators, and study optimal reindeer husbandry under predation pressure and the costs of predation. We show that the costs of predation highly depend on the age‐class‐specific killing rates of reindeer by various predator species, but not on interest rate or pasture conditions. Regarding species that are more likely to kill adult reindeer in addition to calves, the total predation costs are clearly higher than the net slaughtering value of the predated animals. The decrease in steady‐state yearly net income is highest for the gray wolf and lower for other predator species. Adapting to predation pressure includes increasing the size of the reindeer population in winter and changing the slaughtering age of males towards young adults, thus reducing the importance of calf harvesting. This result contrasts with the previous results from stage‐structured models that do not fully include time lags related to long‐living ungulate species. The costs of predation appear to be much higher in an ex post system than in a territorial compensation system, as in an ex post system herders have not adapted to the predation pressure and must search for the predated reindeer to gain compensations. Our results suggest that co‐existence of a viable gray wolf population and profitable reindeer husbandry in the same area is not possible in most cases.

Mission impossible? Pursuing the co-existence of viable predator populations and sustainable reindeer husbandry in Finland

The recovery and expansion of large carnivores have increased livestock damage in Europe, one example being the reindeer husbandry in northern Fennoscandia. Mostly free-ranging reindeer herds have been exposed to increased predation. We studied connections between the contemporary predator management approach and the consequences of predation in reindeer husbandry within the reindeer management area in Finland. National and supranational management policies aim at biodiversity conservation; predator populations with favourable conservation status play an important role in this. The metapopulation status of large carnivores has been suffering from weak connections between Finland and Scandinavia, but such connections have the potential to be improved due to increased population sizes and changes in carnivore distribution in Finland. Although the sustainability of rural livelihoods is pursued concurrent with the recovering predator populations, the increasing amount of predation-caused reindeer damage has locally compromised the economic sustainability of reindeer husbandry and well-being of herders in Finland. If co-existence is pursued in the present situation, it will require both the development of novel coping strategies by herders to prevent damage, and adaptive management of predator populations. To increase the acceptance of predator protection by local communities, it is crucial to develop more interactive predator management strategies with a concrete role of local stakeholders to address trust issues between herders, policy makers and researchers. Open discussion on the population goals for predators in the reindeer management area as well as the desired role and status of reindeer husbandry is also needed. • Status of the predator populations has improved in northern Finland compared to 90s. • Connections of carnivore populations between Finland and Scandinavia have improved. • Increasing large carnivore populations increase predation-caused reindeer damage. • Damage risks the economic and socio-cultural sustainability of reindeer husbandry. • Conflict between reindeer husbandry and predator conservation can be mitigated.

A Mini-Review of Ixodes Ticks Climate Sensitive Infection Dispersion Risk in the Nordic Region.

Climate change in the Nordic countries is projected to lead to both wetter and warmer seasons. This, in combination with associated vegetation changes and increased animal migration, increases the potential incidence of tick-borne diseases (TBD) where already occurring, and emergence in new places. At the same time, vegetation and animal management influence tick habitat and transmission risks. In this paper, we review the literature on Ixodes ricinus, the primary vector for TBD. Current and projected distribution changes and associated disease transmission risks are related to climate constraints and climate change, and this risk is discussed in the specific context of reindeer management. Our results indicate that climatic limitations for vectors and hosts, and environmental and societal/institutional conditions will have a significant role in determining the spreading of climate-sensitive infections (CSIs) under a changing climate. Management emerges as an important regulatory “tool” for tick and/or risk for disease transfer. In particular, shrub encroachment, and pasture and animal management, are important. The results underscore the need to take a seasonal view of TBD risks, such as (1) grazing and migratory (host) animal presence, (2) tick (vector) activity, (3) climate and vegetation, and (4) land and animal management, which all have seasonal cycles that may or may not coincide with different consequences of climate change on CSI migration. We conclude that risk management must be coordinated across the regions, and with other land-use management plans related to climate mitigation or food production to understand and address the changes in CSI risks.

Matching societal knowledge demand, research funding and scientific knowledge supply: trends and co-creation dynamics around reindeer management in Finland

ABSTRACT Matching knowledge Demand, research Funding and knowledge Supply (DFS) is important in order to enhance societally and policy relevant research, target funding appropriately and enhance the connectivity between science, policy and society. The DFS field around reindeer management in Finland offers a fertile case study to examine interconnected and complex trends as well as the relations between herders’ and policymakers’ knowledge demand, ministerial funding and independent supply of knowledge by science. We identify matches and mismatches between the DFS in a case study of reindeer management in Finland across ten inductively identified themes and in time scales of 2000–2009 and 2010–2018. The main finding was that, during the latter period, the DFS matched significantly better than in the earlier period. In order to explain this, we identify and discuss five alternative and legitimate co-creation dynamics that explain how the DFS is organizing around the reindeer management in Finland. The five dynamics represent variations in the co-creation approach, fit to varying situations, which can inform of alternative ways to better match the DFS around reindeer management, and they are also applicable in other contexts.

Climate change and reindeer management in Finland: Co-analysis of practitioner knowledge and meteorological data for better adaptation

We studied interannual variability and changes over time in selected climate indices in the reindeer management area (RMA) in northern Finland. We present together the knowledge possessed by reindeer herders with information from meteorological measurements over three decades. The practitioner knowledge was gathered via a survey questionnaire addressing herder observations of long-term changes (approximately during the past 30 years) in climatic conditions and their impacts on herding during the four seasons. A set of temperature-, precipitation- and snow-related indices relevant for herding within the RMA was derived from spatially interpolated daily meteorological data (1981–2010). Climatic changes detected based on the measurement data were mainly consistent with earlier studies, and practitioner knowledge was generally in line with the meteorological data. The herders had experienced the largest number of changes during the winter, and the smallest number of changes during the summer. The herders reported various impacts of changing seasonal weather on reindeer condition and behavior, and on herding practices. Adaptation to the changing conditions requires adoption of various coping strategies by the herders in their everyday work, continuous development of professional techniques and practices, as well as support received from the governance of reindeer management. We conclude that holistic understanding of the impacts of climate change and adaptation to changes in the future requires simultaneous analyses of data from different sources, more research co-defined with local practitioners, and co-planned governance solutions. The approach presented in this work can ease the dialogue between the local practitioners, researchers and policy makers.

Without land we are lost: traditional knowledge, digital technology and power relations

This study examines use of digital transferred knowledge within husbandry based on interviews and literature studies. Traditional knowledge is the base of husbandry. In husbandry today, this knowledge is combined with the digitally transferred knowledge through the use of the global positioning system collar. Husbandry never operates in isolation from other actors but interacts and is affected by multiple stakeholders and by regulatory practices regulations. The digital data can, besides being used in everyday practice, also be incorporated in reindeer husbandry plans. Reindeer husbandry plans is a tool for obtaining information of land use in husbandry in communication with other land users, but it is also a tool for operational reindeer management for the communities. The reindeer use of grazing land can through the data from the global positioning system collar create “hard facts” used for aspirations of power in discussions over land use.

Changes in mountain birch forests and reindeer management: Comparing different knowledge systems in Sápmi, northern Fennoscandia

AbstractMountain birch forests in the northern areas of Sápmi, the Saami homeland, serve as pastures for semi-domesticated reindeer. Recent reindeer management of the area has, to date, proceeded with little involvement of reindeer herders or their knowledge. To get more in-depth understanding of recent changes, we present together herders’ knowledge and scientific knowledge concerning the impacts of herbivory and climate change on mountain birch forests in three Saami communities in Norway and in Finland. Most of the herders interviewed reported changes in weather during the preceding decades. Herders agreed that the canopy and understorey of mountain birch forests have changed. The observed transformations in the quality of pastures have increased the financial costs of reindeer husbandry. Our study demonstrates that herders have practical knowledge of the present state and recent changes of birch forests, and of the responses of reindeer caused by these. This knowledge generally coincides with scientific knowledge. We call for better integration of knowledge systems and a better protocol for co-production of knowledge as it relates to more adaptive future reindeer management regimes. Such integration will facilitate understanding of cultural adaptation within rapidly changing social-ecological systems in which sustainable reindeer husbandry continues to be an important livelihood.

Reindeer husbandry in a mountain Sami village in boreal Sweden: the social and economic effect of introducing GPS collars and adaptive forest management

Reindeer husbandry in northern Sweden, Norway, and Finland is an extensive agroforestry system, and the management of reindeer occurs alongside other land uses such as forestry, hunting, and tourism. The economic, social, and environmental impact of using GPS collars to track the reindeer was evaluated in the Sami village of Njaarke in boreal Sweden. A second objective was to evaluate how adapted forest management influenced reindeer husbandry. The results show that the use of GPS tracking enables the improved monitoring of the reindeer but the financial costs were greater than the financial benefits. The increased income did not cover the costs of depreciation and maintenance. Whilst the labour inputs associated with reindeer husbandry were high, 30–40% of the gross value added by village activities were related to hunting, tourism, and the renting of fishing rights. The use of adaptive forest management was assumed to increase the number of reindeer that could be reared through to slaughter and it was calculated to increase the gross value added by reindeer husbandry by more than 30%.

Human–animal agency in reindeer management: Sámi herders’ perspectives on vegetation dynamics under climate change

AbstractMany primary livelihoods in Arctic and sub‐Arctic regions experience accelerating effects of environmental change. The often close connection between indigenous peoples and their respective territories allows them to make detailed observations of how these changes transform the landscapes where they practice their daily activities. Here, we report Sámi reindeer herders’ observations based on their long‐term inhabitance and use of contrasting pastoral landscapes in northern Fennoscandia. In particular, we focus on the capacity for various herd management regimes to prevent a potential transformation of open tundra vegetation to shrubland or woodland. Sámi herders did not confirm a substantial, rapid, or large‐scale transformation of treeless tundra areas into shrub‐ and/or woodlands. However, where they observe encroachment of open tundra landscapes, a range of factors was deemed responsible. These included abiotic conditions, anthropogenic influences, and the direct and indirect effects of reindeer. The advance of the mountain birch tree line was in some cases associated with reduced or discontinued grazing and firewood cutting, depending on the seasonal significance of these particular areas. Where the tree line has risen in elevation and/or latitude, herding practices have by necessity adapted to these changes. Exploiting the capacity of reindeer impacts on vegetation as a conservation tool offers time‐tested adaptive strategies of ecosystem management to counteract a potential encroachment of the tundra by woody plants. However, novel solutions in environmental governance involve difficult trade‐offs for ecologically sustainable, economically viable, and socially desirable management strategies.