Reindeer Industry Research Articles

Securing the boundaries of wilderness in northern Alaska, 1892–1950

This paper examines the socio-ecological implications of reindeer-caribou hybridization during the rise and collapse of the reindeer industry in Alaska. Following their introduction in the late nineteenth century, reindeer populations increased dramatically as herds spread throughout the territory. As populations increased, domesticated reindeer often escaped from their herds and ran off with migratory caribou. By the 1920s, Alaskan wildlife managers and scientists came to view feral reindeer as a form of biological pollution and a threat to the health and purity of the region's wild caribou. Despite divergent evolutionary histories, reindeer and caribou are related at the subspecies level and can interbreed to produce hybridized offspring. I argue that managerial anxieties about reindeer-caribou hybridization were bound up with broader concerns regarding race and related efforts to protect ostensibly pure spaces of wilderness and nature. Throughout the paper, I consider managerial attempts to mitigate reindeer-caribou hybridization in northern Alaska, which included the demarcation and reinforcement of conceptual and spatial boundaries between wild and domesticated forms of life. However, between the late nineteenth and mid-twentieth centuries, feral reindeer and hybridized caribou repeatedly demonstrated the violability of the biological categories and conceptual boundaries that wildlife managers employed as they sought to order life on the northern tundra.

Развитие оленеводства на Севере Якутии в 1990-х годах: количественные показатели

The article, prepared with the financial support of Russian State Scientific Foundation (RGNF) within the project No. 17-11-14003, the attempt is made to characterize the general situation of reindeer herding in the first post-Soviet period on the basis of the dynamics of the population. This is the main parameter of the prosperity of the Northern economy. The affected sphere is of scientific interest to study traditional economy of indigenous peoples of the North. The problem of development of traditional sectors of the economy considered in the projection of the characteristics quantity of reindeer herding of the population and its specific weight by categories of farms. The study of this question as a hypothesis put forward against the background of general characteristics of the Northern farms in the 1990-ies the view that the dynamics of the number of livestock and the ratio of the share of livestock have their certain characteristics for outcome - the assessment of development of the reindeer industry in the study period in different categories of agriculture, natural-economic zoning of the area groups engaged in reindeer herding. It is important to show that, despite the known socio-economic problems in the development of reindeer herding, a more complete picture of the changes in the main quantitative indicator as historically measure of well-being and traditional economy of the North in the most difficult post-Soviet period can be presented based on the analysis of official statistical and archival data.

The role of predation and food limitation on claims for compensation, reindeer demography and population dynamics.

Summary A major challenge in biodiversity conservation is to facilitate viable populations of large apex predators in ecosystems where they were recently driven to ecological extinction due to resource conflict with humans.Monetary compensation for losses of livestock due to predation is currently a key instrument to encourage human–carnivore coexistence. However, a lack of quantitative estimates of livestock losses due to predation leads to disagreement over the practice of compensation payments. This disagreement sustains the human–carnivore conflict.The level of depredation on year‐round, free‐ranging, semi‐domestic reindeer by large carnivores in Fennoscandia has been widely debated over several decades. In Norway, the reindeer herders claim that lynx and wolverine cause losses of tens of thousands of animals annually and cause negative population growth in herds. Conversely, previous research has suggested that monetary predator compensation can result in positive population growth in the husbandry, with cascading negative effects of high grazer densities on the biodiversity in tundra ecosystems.We utilized a long‐term, large‐scale data set to estimate the relative importance of lynx and wolverine predation and density‐dependent and climatic food limitation on claims for losses, recruitment and population growth rates in Norwegian reindeer husbandry.Claims of losses increased with increasing predator densities, but with no detectable effect on population growth rates. Density‐dependent and climatic effects on claims of losses, recruitment and population growth rates were much stronger than the effects of variation in lynx and wolverine densities. Synthesis and applications. Our analysis provides a quantitative basis for predator compensation and estimation of the costs of reintroducing lynx and wolverine in areas with free‐ranging semi‐domestic reindeer. We outline a potential path for conflict management which involves adaptive monitoring programmes, open access to data, herder involvement and development of management strategy evaluation (MSE) models to disentangle complex responses including multiple stakeholders and individual harvester decisions.

"I'd Be Foolish to Tell You They Were Caribou": Local Knowledge of Historical Interactions between Reindeer and Caribou in Barrow, Alaska.

Karen H. Mager Karen H. Mager, Department of Biology and Wildlife – University of Alaska Fairbanks. Irving 1, room 201, 902 N Koyukuk Dr., Fairbanks, AK 99775; karen.mager{at}alaska.edu

Evidence of alphaherpesvirus infections in Alaskan caribou and reindeer

BackgroundThe reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) industry in Alaska began with animals imported from Siberia (Russia) in the 1890's. Cervid herpes virus 2 (CvHV2) is endemic in reindeer in Scandinavia. We sought to determine if the same virus, or similar herpesviruses, were circulating in Alaskan reindeer and caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti). Serum samples from 292 reindeer were collected during annual reindeer handlings (1988-2005) near Nome, Alaska. In 2005, swab samples were collected from 40 calves from this herd, near Nome, Alaska. In 2007, ocular and nasal swab samples were collected from 30 apparently healthy reindeer calves near Wales, Alaska. Samples of plasma and white blood cells were collected from three Alaskan caribou herds, Mulchatna (n = 24), Teshekpuk (n = 34) and the Western Arctic (n = 87) in 2009.ResultsOf 292 reindeer samples tested by ELISA for antibodies against alphaherpesvirus (bovine herpesvirus 1 as antigen), seroprevalence was 47% (136/292) and adult reindeer had higher seroprevalence than yearlings. The overall seroprevalence for caribou was 60% (87/145), with no significant differences among caribou herds. A virus neutralization test of 20 samples from both reindeer and caribou showed that ELISA positive samples always neutralized CvHV2 to a greater extent than BoHV1 or elk herpesvirus (ElkHV), indicating that CvHv2 is the most likely virus circulating. PCR of nasal and ocular swabs sampled from 30 reindeer calves in Wales, Alaska (2007) yielded four CvHV2 positive samples. PCR amplicons of the expected size (294 bp) were obtained from 2 of the 36 buffy coats samples from caribou, and the amplicon sequences were consistent with CvHV2.ConclusionsThis study shows that Alaskan reindeer and Caribou are infected with an alphaherpesvirus. Based on sequence similarity, CvHV-2 is the most likely virus. Further studies should be conducted to determine the impact of this infection on the health of these animals.

Accounting for cultural heritage — A theoretical and empirical exploration with focus on Swedish reindeer husbandry

The aim of this paper is to explore some of the theoretical and empirical aspects of an economy which includes cultural capital. We use a simple dynamic growth model and the concept of a social accounting matrix (SAM) to illustrate how the addition of income flows and net changes of various natural and cultural resources can be incorporated into a broader measure of welfare. The Swedish reindeer industry, managed by the indigenous Sami people, is used as an example since it is generally regarded to have significant cultural heritage value, beyond its contribution to conventional national accounts. We discuss a theoretically correct compensation to a cultural sector for preserving and maintaining a cultural heritage. Furthermore, we attempt to estimate the cultural value of the Sámi Reindeer sector in Sweden using a CVM survey. The results suggest that the willingness to pay (per year) to maintain cultural heritage at least at the current level may be quite substantive, estimates showing it can be several times the industry's turnover per year.

Reindeer in the “Great Land”: Alaska's Red Meat Industry

The reindeer industry in Alaska has a colorful and complex history, intricately blending anthropological, political, social, religious, economic, and environmental factors. Today's reindeer industr...

A reindeer herder's perspective on caribou, weather and socio-economic change on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska

Non-climate variables shape vulnerability and adaptive capacity to climate change. Here, we describe how recent environmental and socio-economic developments have transformed reindeer herding and perceptions of weather on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska. The reindeer industry has shrunk considerably since the early 1990s, when the winter range of the Western Arctic Caribou Herd expanded, and over 17 000 reindeer mixed with migrating caribou and left the region. Socio-economic and environmental repercussions make the continuation of herding tenuous, and erode the ability of herders to cope with weather variability, among other perturbations. We present a case study of one herder’s annual cycle, and juxtapose physical drivers of herding activities, including weather-station and herder observations of local weather variability, with socio-economic factors. There is an increased urgency to access and monitor reindeer with caribou present, but herding plans are constrained by lower economic returns and the need to spend more time in non-herding jobs. Although weather is a greater concern now for immediate herd access, standard weather data are largely irrelevant to the mechanics of herding, whereas variables pertaining to the timing of biotic events (e.g., synchrony of spring break-up and calving) and visibility are attributed to lost herding opportunities. Short-term responses to weather conditions stem from more longterm vulnerability associated with caribou presence, reduced herd size, difficulties affording snowmobile maintenance or crew assistance, and dwindling market opportunities. We emphasize the environmental and socioeconomic interactions that affect vulnerability and adaptive capacity for modern herding.

Climate change and the Sámi reindeer industry in Norway. Probable needs of adaptation

Climate change and the Sámi reindeer industry in Norway. Probable needs of adaptation

Climate change and the Sámi reindeer industry in Norway. Probable needs of adaptation

This article was submitted without an abstract, please refer to the full-text PDF file.

A reindeer herder’s perspective on caribou, weather and socio-economic change on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska

Non-climate variables shape vulnerability and adaptive capacity to climate change. Here, we describe how recent environmental and socio-economic developments have transformed reindeer herding and perceptions of weather on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska. The reindeer industry has shrunk considerably since the early 1990s, when the winter range of the Western Arctic Caribou Herd expanded, and over 17 000 reindeer mixed with migrating caribou and left the region. Socio-economic and environmental repercussions make the continuation of herding tenuous, and erode the ability of herders to cope with weather variability, among other perturbations. We present a case study of one herder’s annual cycle, and juxtapose physical drivers of herding activities, including weather-station and herder observations of local weather variability, with socio-economic factors. There is an increased urgency to access and monitor reindeer with caribou present, but herding plans are constrained by lower economic returns and the need to spend more time in non-herding jobs. Although weather is a greater concern now for immediate herd access, standard weather data are largely irrelevant to the mechanics of herding, whereas variables pertaining to the timing of biotic events (e.g., synchrony of spring break-up and calving) and visibility are attributed to lost herding opportunities. Short-term responses to weather conditions stem from more longterm vulnerability associated with caribou presence, reduced herd size, difficulties affording snowmobile maintenance or crew assistance, and dwindling market opportunities. We emphasize the environmental and socioeconomic interactions that affect vulnerability and adaptive capacity for modern herding.

Sámi reindeer herd managers: why do they stay in a low‐profit business?

PurposeThis paper aims to reflect on the Sámi reindeer industry, which, in spite of a low economic return, contrasts with other primary industries in not displaying a population decline.Design/methodology/approachThe project in this paper is based on two major hypotheses: the life form hypothesis: reindeer management has a particular value for the performers, being the condition for an active choice of staying within the industry; the capital hypothesis: lacking recognition of the resources of the reindeer‐managing Sámi is/has been limiting their establishment in capital requiring undertakings.FindingsIn the paper there are indications that the reindeer‐managing Sámi practices are in a Weberian sense a substantial rationality. Analysis at hand indicates close connections between landscape, management type, and type of rationality in reindeer management.Practical implicationsThe project in the paper analyses the economy of reindeer management in chosen regions by both quantitative and qualitative studies, focusing on the household level. For the quantitative analyses the creation and extent of value streams in the households of reindeer management and near surroundings are focused. In the qualitative analyses the point of departure is decision situations and strategic choices with reindeer‐managing Sámi. Comparative analyses will be undertaken to explore representation of the regional studies.Originality/valueThe paper shows that the design is original and the outcome is expected to have a potential for changing the focus of current policies.

The robustness of reindeer husbandry – need for a new approach to elucidate opportunities and sustainability of the reindeer industry in its socio-ecological context (In Swedish with Summary in English)

A series of transformations and adaptations in the Sami use of land for their subsistence over a long period of time has led to the reindeer husbandry of today. In Sweden the Sami rights to land and water are today legally connected to the practising of reindeer husbandry as a livelihood. Together with a few associated commodities, it has become considered is the only lasting Sami land-use. In the Sami culture, a central element is the association of the people with the land and the subsistence on what is provided in nature. Consequently, this association between people and land is today kept alive by the reindeer husbandry practiced as a livelihood, which thereby also produces and manages an essential base for the culture. The developments in the surrounding society are currently reducing the latitude for the reindeer industry at an accelerated rate and thereby also its capacity to handle new situations. In the complicated ecological, economic, social and institutional contexts, where reindeer husbandry is practiced, there is a large risks for sudden and unpredicted disintegrations and collapses at different system levels. The consequences thereof for the long term continuation and adaptability of Sami land use are largely unpredictable. If it leads to a collapse of reindeer industry as mode of land-use, the risks of additional deterioration of the Sami indigenous rights is also apparent and thereby the scope for new solutions as well. This will likely have serious negative consequences for the viability of the Sami culture concurrently with declining live dependences of the land. The situation of reindeer husbandry has similarities with management crises in many other integrated socio-ecological systems, which have led to sustainability failures and unpredicted consequences. These insights seem to be deficient in the treatment of the problems, which reindeer industry is facing. Scientists could probably make a very important contribution by elucidating these circumstances. This requires the adoption of a new approach based on complex systems thinking, where possible changes associated with internal and external conditions can be analysed across system borders, scales and disciplines. A possible conceptual framework for such analyses would be the theories evolved around adaptive transformations in integrated human and natural systems, now becoming a vital part of sustainability science. Fundamental in this framework is the integration of physical, ecological, economic, social and institutional systems via adaptive cycles. These are characterised by four consecutive key processes, which are repeated irregularly over time, namely growth and development, maturation with increasing vulnerability, gradual or sudden disintegration and collapse, and release of resources and values for controlled or uncontrolled reorganisation, growth and development. The connections span over temporal and spatial or social scales, the rate and magnitude of changes in different variables depend to some extent of the scale. Typical for such complex systems are a high degree of dynamics with simultaneous changes in different parts of the system, uncertainty and unpredictability, varying vulnerability over time, multiple stability domains, and inbuilt non-linearities which may cause the system to flip into another trajectories or stability domains when challenges exceed the ability of the system to absorb disturbances without loosing its functions (i.e. resilience). The latter typically happens after decreased resilience which may have many different causes. This may be due to different slow and maybe ignored losses of key resources or abilities to utilise them, slow accumulations of adverse circumstances such as external disturbances, losses of functional diversities, decreased capability to adopt novelties, loss of social capabilities, trust or ability of learning, rigid institutions, etc. It is generally suggested that the management of complex systems should promote the building and maintenance of resilience, creative self-organisations, learning and diversity, rather than strive for decreased variation and stability in the conventional sense. The complex system view is much closer the actual “soul” of reindeer husbandry, which by necessity is characterised by maintaining flexibility, living with uncertainty and continuously adapting to prevailing conditions. This stands in sharp contrast to the “control and command” type of management, which is usually investigated and imposed on the reindeer industry.

Domestication of ruminant livestock and the impact of nematode parasites:possible implications for the reindeer industry

In a balanced ecological system, both host and nematode parasite populations are firmly controlled by a complex array of interacting factors. However domestication of livestock has tipped the balance in favour of the parasites. This is due to increasing the proportion of susceptible animals in the herd or flock (lactating females and weaned young animals), increasing stocking rate, increasing productivity demands and decreasing the movement of the animals. In contrast with microbial infections, where multiplication takes place entirely within the host, metazoan parasites have both a parasitic phase and a free-living phase. Every worm present has been separately acquired by the ingestion of free-living stages on pasture. Immunity to nematodes develops slowly, it is labile, and its maintenance is dependent upon a good nutritional state of the animal. Consequently, worm parasites are ubiquitous wherever livestock are kept and they impose a constant and often a high infectious pressure on grazing animals. Nematode infections in grazing livestock are almost always a mixture of species. All have deleterious effects and collectively lead to chronic ill thrift. Economic evaluations repeatedly show that the major losses due to parasites are on animal production, rather than on mortality. This paper focuses on the problems of nematode parasites; problems associated with drug use (anthelmintic resistance, environmental impact) and costs of nematode infections for the common ruminant livestock industries (cattle, sheep, goats), with possible analogies for the semi-domesticated reindeer industry.

Reindeer husbandry in Finland

Reindeer are herded in the northernmost Finland over an area of 114 000 km2, about 35% of the area of the country. Herding is carried out both by Sami and Finns. The paper gives some statistics on the reindeer industry and underlines the importance of reindeer husbandry in Finland.

Analysis of the economic adaptation of Sami reindeer management - A co-operation project between Nordic Sami Institute (NSI) and Umeå University (UU), Centre for Sami Research (CESAM) (In Norwegian with Summary in English)

In spite of low economic return in Sami reindeer management in most regions, there has been an increasing human population in the reindeer industry during the latest decades. This deviates from the expectations given by modern purpose rationality. There are indications that the reindeer managing Sami practices in Weberian sense a substantial rationality. Analysis at hand indicate close connections between landscape, management type, and type of rationality in reindeer management. The project is based on two major hypotheses: 1) The life form hypothesis: reindeer management has an particular value for the performers being the condition for an active choice of remaining within the industry, 2) The capital hypothesis: lacking re¬cognition of the resources of the reindeer managing Sami is/ has been limiting their establishment in capital requiring undertakings. The project will analyse the economy of reindeer management based on investigations in several types of reindeer management as well in Norway as in Sweden, in North Sami and South Sami areas. In chosen regions both quantitative and qualitative studies will be undertaken, focusing household level, to map the economy of the reindeer managing Sami. For the quantitative analyses creation and extent of value streams in the households of reindeer management and near surroundings are focused. In the qualitative analyses the point of departure is decision situations and strategic choices with reindeer managing Sami. Based on the regional analyses comparative analyses are conducted to find representativity of the regional studies. The project was started 1st July 2004 and is financed for 2!/!> years from The Research Council of Norway (Program for Sami Research), Interreg (Interreg IIIA Såpmi & Åarjelsaemie dajve), The Sami Parliament of Sweden and self-financing from NSI and UU. The project has near after start 2 full time researchers and project leader in a 20% position. Another researcher will join the project in summer 2005. It will be considered to apply for additional financing to extend the project up to a total of four years.

Conference report (including non-peer reviewed articles) of the 13th Nordic Conference on Reindeer and Reindeer Husbandry Research, 23-25 August 2004, Røros, Norway.

The 13th Nordic Conference on Reindeer and Reindeer Husbandry Research gathered 75 participants representing the sciences, husbandry, management and education. The main topics were South Sami reindeer husbandry, the concession reindeer husbandry in South Norway and future aspects of reindeer industry. The main focus and other themes as well were discussed in lectures and poster presentations. The conference was arranged by Nordic Council for Reindeer Husbandry Research (NOR) in cooperation with Centre for Sami Studies, University of Tromsø. The conference was held in the South Sami area in the town of Røros. Rangifer Report No. 9, 2004, was published for the conference and included conference programme and abstracts. A proceedings report with articles based on the conference' lectures, is published here in this issue of Rangifer Report.

Sensory meat quality, ultimate pH values, blood parameters and carcass characteristics in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.) grazed on natural pastures or fed a commercial feed mixture

Sensory properties in meat, ultimate muscle pH values, blood metabolites and carcass characteristics from reindeer grazed on natural pasture (n=23) or fed a commercial feed mixture (n=17) were studied. Reindeer fed commercial feed generally had lower ultimate pH values (increased glycogen stores) in all three muscles measured (Mm. triceps brachii, longissimus and biceps femoris) compared with the animals grazing natural pasture. Raised plasma urea concentrations in all reindeer were explained by a relatively high intake of protein for both treatments. Aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT) activities in all animals were low, and did not indicate muscle degeneration due to stress. However, the measured plasma cortisol concentrations showed that all reindeer were affected by the immediate pre-slaughter handling. Sensory evaluation was performed both as a descriptive test using a selected and trained panel, and as a preference test carried out with two groups of consumers (experienced and non-experienced reindeer meat eaters). The trained panel concluded that meat from reindeer fed commercial feed scored higher for liver and sweet flavour intensities and lower for off-flavour compared with meat from reindeer grazing natural pasture. The consumer test showed no effect of consumer age, gender or residence on the preference for meat from reindeer on either feed. The importance for the reindeer industry to acknowledge and use the differences in flavour and consumer preference as a specialised marketing strategy for reindeer meat is discussed.

Conflicts between reindeer herding and an expanding caribou herd in Alaska

The reindeer industry has existed in Alaska since 1892. This industry has largely been concentrated on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska because suitable habitat has been available and caribou have been absent here for over 100 years. Until recently, reindeer meat and velvet antler production consistently generated millions of dollars in revenue critical to the economies of rural Alaskan communities. From 1976 to 1996 the Western Arctic Caribou Herd (WACH) increased from about 75 000 to 463 000 animals. Concurrently, seasonal range use of the WACH shifted westward onto traditional reindeer ranges of the Seward Peninsula. Reindeer herders lost 75-100% of their herds through commingling and out¬migration with wild caribou. This loss of over 12 000 reindeer represents a potential economic value of 13 million dollars. Sustainable meat and velvet antler production and the economies of western Alaskan are likely to be affected by these changes.

Managing reindeer and wildlife on Alaska's Seward Peninsula

When reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) were introduced to Alaska's Seward Peninsula between 1892 and 1902, other ungulates were not present and large predators were either absent or less abundant than after reindeer were established. During the next 100 years reindeer numbers and distribution increased and declined precipitously on the Seward Peninsula; wildlife species repopulated this region through natural processes or translocations by man; the non-Native human population of Alaska increased dramatically and wildlife management became an issue of national concern creating diverse public desires regarding resource use; and both range and wildlife became intensively managed through complex, politicized processes. This paper provides an historical overview of reindeer and wildlife abundance on the Seward Peninsula during the 20th century and describes the effects of wildlife on the reindeer industry. Cooperative public processes have been initiated to bring diverse public interests together; meld indigenous, scientific and local knowledge of resources; and supplement governmental wildlife management programmes. Even so, the Seward Peninsula reindeer industry has been severely impacted by wildlife, especially caribou (R. t. granti).