Reindeer Husbandry Area Research Articles

Writing Sámi Memory and Trauma into Swedish History: Linnea Axelsson’s Ædnan. Epos (2018) and Elin Anna Labba’s Herrarna Satte Oss Hit. Om Tvångsförflyttningar i Sverige (2020)

After Sweden and Norway signed the reindeer grazing convention agreement in 1919, reindeer-herding Sámi families selected by the Swedish authorities were forced to migrate from the Karesuando area in Norway to more southern regions within the reindeer husbandry area in Sweden. These relocations at the beginning of the twentieth century are the source of memory and trauma in both Linnea Axelsson’s Ædnan. Epos (2018; Ædnan. An Epic) and Elin Anna Labba’s Herrarna satte oss hit. Om tvångsförflyttningar i Sverige (2020; The Masters Put Us Here. On Forced Relocations in Sweden). Furthermore, the two works contain paratextual fragments that express the desire to make the silenced past of the Sámi audible in Swedish history. Each text transmits memories and traumas from different genre perspectives: those of poetry and partly autobiographical non-fiction. The texts reveal processes of colonization and oppression within national borders, with scientific racism as an underlying ideology.In this contribution also a methodological issue will be discussed. How should we study texts that deal with writing about trauma and memory of a minority people such as the Sámi? An indigenous methodology, as presented by authors such as Jelena Porsanger in “An Essay about Indigenous Methodology” (2004), should be an important guide, as it concerns a respectful approach to the study of indigenous minority people.“

Geographical variability and cultural diversity of reindeer pastoralism in northern Russia: delimitation of areas with different types of reindeer husbandry

Traditional reindeer husbandry in Russia is a fascinating phenomenon of northern pastoralism and nomadism. Russia is home to over two-thirds of the world’s total domesticated reindeer herd. Reindeer husbandry in Russia is practised by 15 indigenous peoples, some of whom still pursue a nomadic lifestyle. The purpose of this article is to visualise reindeer husbandry, together with its hosting biophysical and social environment, as a socio-ecological system or a reindeer pastoralist landscape, and to present its diversity as a geographical system of landscape zones and regions. Such a holistic landscape approach is rooted in the landscape ecology and reflects the basic patterns of reindeer husbandry’s connections with its surroundings. The research includes 3 stages. We started by dividing the entire reindeer husbandry area of the Russian North into several landscape zones focusing on the predominant migration patterns of reindeer herders, as such patterns reflect the interaction of reindeer husbandry with the geographical environment as a whole. The next stage was zoning by cultural types of reindeer husbandry. In the final stage, we divided the particular reindeer husbandry areas into smaller regions according to the local features of reindeer pastoralism. The research has resulted in a map of traditional reindeer husbandry landscape zoning. This map embraces the whole territory of Russia where traditional reindeer husbandry still exists and comprises 35 units (reindeer pastoralist landscapes) related to four taxonomic levels. The present zoning scheme of Russian reindeer husbandry is, on the one hand, a result but, on the other hand, a tool for further research on reindeer pastoralism within a holistic landscape ecology approach.

Semi-domesticated reindeer avoid winter habitats with exotic tree species Pinus contorta

The introduction of exotic tree species can have profound effects on the native environment, including habitat use and movement patterns of animals, as well as becoming a management challenge for other land users. Here, we used GPS data from reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and remote sensing measurements of lichen cover and soil moisture to assess the effects of the exotic lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) on reindeer husbandry by the Indigenous Sámi in northern Sweden. We used locational data from 67 reindeer for three winters to analyze their habitat selection at the second-order selection (placement of home range in the landscape) and third-order selection (selection of sites within the home range) in relation to land cover class, terricolous lichen cover as measure of winter forage abundance, topographic features, and distance to roads. We also analyzed remotely sensed abundance of lichens in different forest types, and the association between these forest types and soil moisture as measure of suitability as lichen habitat. Compared to native P. sylvestris, we found that reindeer avoided stands with P. contorta where trees were higher than three meters. If P. contorta was the dominant tree species, reindeer were 60 % less likely to select these stands compared to stands with P. sylvestris, and 40 % less likely if P. contorta was less dominant at both orders of selection. We also found that reindeer selected areas with higher lichen cover. Lichen cover was lower in P. contorta stands compared to stands of the native P. sylvestris, even though P. contorta occurred mainly on dry soils usually favorable for terricolous lichens. We conclude that planting P. contorta on soils suitable for terricolous lichens is likely to reduce forage availability for reindeer and turn habitats earlier preferred by reindeer into avoided habitat, resulting in an overall reduction of winter grazing grounds. The effects of stands with P. contorta, albeit covering a comparatively small percentage of the reindeer husbandry area, need to be seen in context with generally declining terricolous lichen abundance due to land uses like forestry and other cumulative effects by external pressures on reindeer husbandry.

Has the sex-specific structure of Finland's brown bear population changed during 21 years?

Gene flow between the two brown bear Ursus arctos populations of Fennoscandia is very weak although bear populations both in Finland and Scandinavia has been increasing substantially during the last 50 years. We examined spatial and temporal pattern in the proportion of adult females in Finland's bear population. First, we expected evidence for decreasing female proportions with increasing distance from the potential core areas in Russia and near Finnish–Russian border. Secondly, we expected increasing proportions of females during our study period of 21 years, i.e. two brown bear generations. We conducted a logistic mixed effects model that would predict a hunter-killed bear's sex based on year, the distance from the source population (Finnish–Russian border), bear management area and bear's age group (adult, sub-adult) as independent variables. Geographic coordinates were used to reduce the apparent spatial autocorrelation. Because female bears form kin clusters, in the final model we used exponential spatial autocorrelation, based on the assumption that the probability of a dead bear being a female increased when the nearest dead bear also was a female. The model demonstrated that the population's population structure did not change spatially during our study period. The only differentiating variables were bear management area and age group, the probability of females being low in reindeer husbandry area, and males predominating among subadults. Because the low proportion of females in Finland's reindeer husbandry area may weaken meta-population viability in Fennoscandia, bear management in northern Finland should save females more efficiently.

Correlation between number of human cases of myiasis caused by the reindeer warble fly (Hypoderma tarandi) and weather conditions during summer in northern Scandinavia

The reindeer warble fly (Hypoderma tarandi) causes myiasis in reindeer and caribou (Rangifer tarandus and subspecies) and aberrant hosts such as humans. Of 22 human cases reported 1982–2016, 16 were children and 18 were residents in or visited northern parts of Norway or Sweden. Of a series of 39 new human cases in Norway 2011–2016 (reported 2017), 32 were children, 32 were resident in Finnmark (northernmost county of Norway), one was a visitor to Finnmark (most likely infested there), 17 were infested in 2012 and 10 in 2013. There are to our knowledge no human cases reported from Finland, although the H. tarandi infestation level in reindeer is high in the reindeer husbandry area of the country and many people live there. Consequently, the differences in geographical distribution and in distribution between children and adults, and between years, relative to where Rangifer and H. tarandi live, strongly indicate the presence of important identifiable drivers affecting the number and distribution. Meteorological data for June–August 2011–2016 from five meteorological stations in Finnmark applied in statistical analyses demonstrated that low proportion of days suitable for H. tarandi flying in July–August, combined with low proportion of days with rain in August, resulted in high number of cases in the particularly cold summer 2012. In contrast, in the particularly warm summer 2013, high proportion of days suitable for H. tarandi flying during July–August gave a high number of cases, and particularly high mean temperature in June tended in the same direction.

Identifying potential areas for an expanding wolf population in Sweden

Large carnivores have historically been decreasing worldwide, often as a result of human-carnivore conflicts. However, large carnivores are recovering throughout Europe, and European management scenarios can provide important insights into broad issues related to human-large carnivore existence. After becoming almost extinct in Sweden during the mid-19th century the Swedish grey wolf (Canis lupus) population has now recovered. Current national wolf management aims to promote distribution shifts from the current areas in central Sweden, potentially also into a previously exempt reindeer husbandry area. Prior wolf re-introductions have highlighted the necessity of pro-active management for colonization success. Identification of likely range expansion areas could therefore be paramount for a successful Swedish wolf management. We characterized the demographic and spatial progression of Swedish wolves during 2001–2015 and used a MaxEnt approach to species distribution models to identify potential range expansion areas. The Swedish wolf population had expanded from 10 to almost 60 reproductions or territorial pairs, and increased in both range size and density. Our distribution models suggested that Swedish wolf management may face trade-offs between costs of hosting wolves in densely populated areas in southern Sweden with cattle and sheep and the costs of allowing wolves to expand into reindeer husbandry areas with associated cultural and economic consequences. Spatially explicit data on the economic, social and cultural factors associated with wolf conflict and acceptance may be paramount for developing optimal management strategies in the face of such a trade-off.

Influence of intraguild interactions on resource use by wolverines and Eurasian lynx

It is important to the conservation and management of threatened or endangered carnivores to recognize interspecific interactions that can influence demography or behavior of the species involved. We studied the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), an efficient predator, and wolverine (Gulo gulo), an opportunistic predator and scavenger, that coexist in the reindeer husbandry area in northern Sweden. Both species are major predators on semidomestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), but wolverines frequently scavenge ungulate carcasses. We examined the composition and use of food resources by wolverines and in particular the relative importance of lynx-killed reindeer in wolverine diet. We also examined the influence of wolverine scavenging on lynx kill rate. We found that 52% of carcasses visited by wolverines were lynx-killed reindeer, but only 11% were wolverine-killed reindeer. Of all wolverine locations at carcasses, 28% were on lynx-killed and 24% on wolverine-killed reindeer. Remaining locations were mainly on reindeer that died from accidents (23%) or were killed by unknown carnivores (9%). Lynx predation rate on reindeer was nine times higher than that of wolverines. Wolverines scavenged 68% of available lynx-killed reindeer, 29% of which were still being used by lynx at wolverine arrival. Still, wolverine scavenging had a limited influence on lynx kill rate. Time to next kill decreased only when the lynx kill was an adult reindeer in forest; however, most lynx-killed reindeer were found on tundra. Wolverines appear to benefit from coexistence with lynx through increased scavenging opportunities. We suspect that lynx presence reduces wolverine predation on reindeer due to increased scavenging opportunities. These results may have important implications for carnivore management in reindeer husbandry areas.

Forest Fragmentation and Landscape Transformation in a Reindeer Husbandry Area in Sweden

Reindeer husbandry and forestry are two main land users in boreal forests in northern Sweden. Modern forestry has numerous negative effects on the ground-growing and arboreal lichens that are crucial winter resources for reindeer husbandry. Using digitized historical maps, we examined changes in the forest landscape structure during the past 100years, and estimated corresponding changes in suitability of forest landscape mosaics for the reindeer winter grazing. Cover of old coniferous forests, a key habitat type of reindeer herding system, showed a strong decrease during the study period, whereas clear-cutting and young forests increased rapidly in the latter half of the 20th century. The dominance of young forests and fragmentation of old-growth forests (decreased patch sizes and increased isolation) reflect decreased amount of arboreal lichens as well as a lowered ability of the landscape to sustain long-term persistence of lichens. The results further showed that variation in ground lichen cover among sites was mainly related to soil moisture conditions, recent disturbances, such as soil scarification and prescribed burning, and possibly also to forest history. In general, the results suggest that the composition and configuration of the forest landscape mosaic has become less suitable for sustainable reindeer husbandry.

Factors affecting Eurasian lynx kill rates on semi-domestic reindeer in northern Scandinavia: Can ecological research contribute to the development of a fair compensation system?

Semi-domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) are the main prey for lynx (Lynx lynx) in northern Scandinavia. This causes large, but poorly documented, losses of reindeer. Although the compensation schemes differ between Norway and Sweden, there is a legal requirement in both Scandinavian countries that losses of semi-domestic reindeer to large carnivores should be fully compensated. The current level of compensation payment is based on limited data on lynx kill rates on reindeer. The main goal of this study was to quantify lynx kill rates on reindeer across a range of ecological conditions in northern Scandinavia. A total of 35 lynx were monitored during 3667days. All lynx individuals killed reindeer. However, we observed a high variation in individual kill rates. Kill rates were strongly affected by sex and social status (i.e. females with and without kittens), as well as season and reindeer availability. The highest kill rates were observed in summer for male lynx, and the lowest were observed during winter for solitary lynx at low reindeer density. In summer, several female lynx switched completely to small prey species even at high densities of reindeer. The present political goals for lynx conservation in Scandinavia require that lynx occur in the reindeer husbandry area where reindeer are the only suitable ungulate prey available. Accordingly, it is therefore impossible to have the total prevention of depredation as a management goal. Rather depredation levels must be limited such that they are considered acceptable, and fair compensation payments should be paid. Our study is the first empirical quantification of the magnitude of lynx depredation on semi-domestic reindeer. This is an important step necessary to enable the setting of fair compensation levels and will hopefully lead to a reduction in conflict level concerning the potential impacts that lynx have on reindeer.

Mortality and survival of semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.) calves in northern Finland

During the period 1999 to 2004 the reindeer calf survival and mortality were studied in two reindeer-herding cooperatives and in five herding-groups in northern Finland, where in total 1725 calves were fitted with mortality indicating radio-transmitters fixed on expandable neck collars. The calves were weighed and marked at the age of 2-5 days in calving corrals and also during earmarking in June/July, when the age of calves was 2-8 weeks. The rate, timing and causes of mortality of calves were investigated. In 1999-2001 in Ivalo reindeer-herding cooperative 4.6% of radiocollared calves and in 2002-04 in Käsivarsi reindeer cooperative 5.2% was found dead. The average mortality of the calves radio-collared during calving time in May, and monitored to the end of October, was 6.7% in Ivalo and 9.0% in Käsivarsi. From July on, the average mortality rates varied between 1.8-5.7% among reindeer herding-groups. On average 54 and 42% of all radio-collared calves found dead in Ivalo and Käsivarsi cooperatives were attributed to predation, and golden eagle was the most significant cause of death in both cooperatives killing 0-3.5% of radio-collared calves in different study areas and years. Golden eagle predation accounted for 33-43% of all radio-collared calves found dead, 55-59% of the cases with identified cause of death and 80% of all identified predation. Most of the calves killed by golden eagle were found during July and August mainly in the open areas, as in highlands, bogs and clear-cut forest areas. The mean body weight of the calves radio-collared in May (weights adjusted on June 1st) and found dead during the summer was significantly (P<0.01) lighter than the mean weight of survivors both in Ivalo and Käsivarsi. Furthermore, the midsummer body weights of the calves (weights adjusted on July 1st) killed by all predators and by golden eagles were significantly (P<0.001) lower than the mean weight of surviving calves in both cooperatives. However, the weights did not differ between depredated calves and those calves that succumbed due to other causes than predation. The results of this study emphasize the relative importance of golden eagle as a mortality factor for reindeer calves in the northern part of the Finnish reindeer husbandry area.

Modelling the combined effect of an obligate predator and a facultative predator on a common prey: lynx Lynx lynx and wolverine Gulo gulo predation on reindeer Rangifer tarandus

AbstractIn conservation and management of large predators, effects of species are often considered separately. However, predators often interact with one another in different ways (e.g. interspecific competition, intra guild predation and kleptoparasitism) that may influence the total predation on a common prey. We estimated the total number of semi‐domestic reindeer Rangifer tarandus killed by Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx and wolverine Gulo gulo at different relative abundances of the two species using a model based on diet, food requirements of lynx and wolverine and amount of food available on a reindeer. Our model suggests that total predation decreases by approximately 7.9% (± 4.8 SD) if wolverines scavenge on lynx‐killed reindeer, compared to a model without scavenging. If the management goal is a constant number of predators, the model suggests that the total kill rate will be lowest in areas with only wolverines, as the estimated wolverine kill rate is much lower than the lynx kill rate. Our model showed that it is unlikely that the lowest number of reindeer killed per predator individual will be at a certain lynx‐wolverine ratio, which would appear if lynx consumption of killed reindeer is low and wolverines are very efficient finding lynx‐killed reindeer. However, if the management goal is a constant number of lynx and wolverines, the model suggests that the total predation is lower, if lynx and wolverines coexist in the same area compared to existing separately in different areas. The total predation by wolverine and lynx on reindeer is very important for the management of lynx and wolverine in the reindeer husbandry area in Sweden, as the current compensation scheme for predator‐killed semi‐domestic reindeer is based on the number of predators present within a reindeer herding district, and the compensation for wolverine and lynx is added independently of one another.

Mapping ground lichens using forest inventory and optical satellite data

Lichen is a major forage resource for reindeer and may constitute up to 80% of a reindeer's winter diet. The reindeer grazing area in Sweden covers almost half of the country, with reindeer using mountainous areas in the summer and forested areas in the winter. Knowledge about the spatial distribution of ground lichens is important for both practical and decision-making purposes. Since the early 1980s, remote sensing research of lichen cover in northern environments has focused on reindeer grazing issues. The objective of this study was to use lichen information collected in the Swedish National Forest Inventory (NFI) as training data to classify optical satellite images into ground lichen cover classes. The study site was located within the reindeer husbandry area in northern Sweden and consisted of the common area between two contiguous Satellite Pour l'Observation de la Terre (SPOT)-5 scenes and one Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) scene. Three classification methods were tested: Mahalanobis distance, maximum likelihood and spectral mixture analysis. Post-classification calibration was applied using a membership probability threshold in order to match the NFI-measured proportions of lichen coverage classes. The classification results were assessed using an independently collected field dataset (229 validation areas). The results demonstrated high classification accuracy of SPOT imagery for the classification of lichen-abundant and lichen-poor areas when using the Mahalanobis distance classifier (overall accuracy 84.3%, kappa = 0.68). The highest classification accuracy for Landsat was achieved using a maximum likelihood classification (overall accuracy 76.8%, kappa = 0.53). These results provided an initial indication of the utility of NFI data as training data in the process of mapping lichen classes over large areas.

Vector-borne nematodes, emerging parasites in Finnish cervids

Vector-borne nematodes, emerging parasites in Finnish cervids

Body size in the Eurasian lynx in Sweden: dependence on prey availability

The Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) is a common predator of both roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in Sweden. We investigated the influence of prey availability, latitude, sex, and age on body size and body mass variation of the Eurasian lynx in Sweden, using data from 243 specimens whose locality of capture, year of capture, sex, and age were known. We found that both body size and body mass of the lynx in Sweden are mainly affected by the lynx sex and age but also by the availability of prey during the first year of life. Body size and body mass of lynx as well as the density of roe deer increased from Central Sweden to South. Furthermore, body size and body mass of lynx increased from Central Sweden to North (i.e. within the reindeer husbandry area). Lynx body size was slightly smaller within the reindeer husbandry area (approximately north of latitudes 62°–63°N) compared to outside, probably because reindeer are more difficult prey to hunt, as well as being migratory and thus an unpredictable prey for the Eurasian lynx compared to the non-migratory roe deer. Our results support a growing body of evidence showing that food availability at growth has a major effect on body size of animals.

Efficacy of different treatment regimes against setariosis (Setaria tundra, Nematoda: Filarioidea) and associated peritonitis in reindeer

BackgroundWhen a severe peritonitis outbreak in semi-domesticated reindeer was noticed in 2003 in Finland, the concerned industry urged immediate preventive actions in order to avoid detrimental effects of S. tundra and further economical losses. A research programme was swiftly initiated to study S. tundra and its impact on the health and wellbeing of reindeer.MethodsThe ultimate aim of this study was to test the efficacy of different treatment regimes against S. tundra and associated peritonitis in reindeer. The timing of the trials was planned to be compatible with the annual rhythm of the reindeer management; (1) the treatment of calves in midsummer, during routine calf ear marking, with ivermectin injection prophylaxis and deltamethrin pour-on solution as a repellent against insect vectors, (2) the treatment of infected calves in early autumn with ivermectin injection, and (3) ivermectin treatment of breeding reindeer in winter. The results were assessed using the post mortem inspection data and S. tundra detection. Finally, to evaluate on the population level the influence of the annual (late autumn-winter) ivermectin treatment of breeding reindeer on the transmission dynamics of S. tundra, a questionnaire survey was conducted.ResultsIn autumn, ivermectin treatment was efficient against peritonitis and in midsummer had a slight negative impact on the degree of peritonitis and positive on the fat layer, but deltamethrin had none. Ivermectin was efficient against adult S. tundra and its smf. All the reindeer herding cooperatives answered the questionnaire and it appeared that antiparasitic treatment of reindeer population was intense during the study period, when 64–90% of the animals were treated. In the southern part of the Finnish reindeer husbandry area, oral administration of ivermectin was commonly used.ConclusionAutumn, and to a lesser degree summer, treatment of reindeer calves with injectable ivermectin resulted in decreased severity of peritonitis and perihepatitis in reindeer calves due to setariosis. In the case of necessity for animal welfare reasons, treatment during early autumn round ups should be considered. On the population level, massive and routinely applied antiparasitic treatments can improve the health of breeding reindeer and decrease the mortality and the number of carriers but during the outbreak could not prevent its movement and expansion to the North.

Predicting occurrence of wolf territories in Scandinavia

AbstractWe used logistic regression to compare a set of habitat features inside known Scandinavian wolf Canis lupus territories with the same habitat features in areas outside known territories, but still close enough to be available for wolf colonization. In addition, we analysed changes in habitat variables over time within wolf territories. Wolf territories had lower densities of roads, built‐up areas and open land than areas outside wolf territories, but there was no difference in the density of the wolves' main prey, elk Alces alces. The logistic regression model classified 79% of Scandinavia outside the reindeer husbandry area as suitable wolf habitat, that is with a probability of wolf occurrence >0.5. The proportion of built‐up areas within the wolf territory decreased as the ‘borders’ of the wolf territory changed over time. Our model had a reasonably high predictive power, with correct classification in 90% (18 of 20) of the observed wolf territories in the study area. Polygons, randomly distributed outside the observed wolf territories, were correctly classified as not being occupied by wolves in 85% of the cases (17 of 20). This allows a more effective use of resources to, for example, prevent wolf depredation on livestock and dogs.

Predation in the reindeer husbandry area in Finland during 1976-86

<p>During the years 1976-86 predators killed a total of 11 295 reindeer in the Finnish reindeer husbandry area. Predators killed mostly calves and hinds. With the exception of the Kåsivarsi and Muotkatun-turi reindeer herding cooperatives, kills of predators were concentrated in the reindeer herding areas on the eastern border. During 1976-86 predators killed most reindeer in April - June, and the majority of preys were calves. Most reindeer were killed by wolves (26.9%), bears (24.7%), wolverines (22.6%) and eagles (15.9%). Wolves, bears, wolverines and lynxes killed mainly adult reindeer, eagles killed mainly calves. Wolves killed reindeer mainly during October - January, lynxes during January - April, wolverines during February - April, eagles during May - July and bears during May - October. During the last years the number of reindeer killed by lynxes has increased in Finland.</p><p>Petovahingot Suomen poronhoitoalueella vuosina 1976-86.</p><p>Abstract in Finnish / Yhteenveto: Viimeisen kymmenen vuoden aikana porojen måårå on lisååntynyt suuresti Suomessa. Vuosina 1976-86 pedot tappoivat Suomen poronhoitoalueella yhteenså 11 295 poroa. Pedot tappoivat pååasiassa vasoja ja vaatimia. Käsivarren ja Muotkatunturin paliskuntia lukuunottamatta petovahingot kohdistuivat lhinn poronhoitoalueen itrajalla oleviin paliskuntiin. Vuosina 1976-86 pedot tappoivat poroja eniten huhti-kesåkuun aikana. Eniten pedot tappoivat tuolloin vasoja. Eniten poroja tappoivat sudet (26.9%), karhut (24.7%), ahmat (22.6%) ja kotkat (15.9%). Sudet, karhut, ahmat ja ilvekset tappoivat pååasiassa aikuisia poroja, kotkat vasoja. Sudet tappoivat poroja låhinnå loka-tammikuussa, ilvekset tammi-huhtikuussa, ahmat helmi-heinåkuussa ja karhut touko-lokakuussa. Viime vuosina ilvesten tappamien porojen måårå on kas vanut Suomessa.</p><p>Rovdjursskador inom det finska renskotselsområdet under åren 1976-86.</p><p>Abstract in Swedish / Sammandrag: Under de senaste tio åren har antalet tamrenar ökat betydligt i Finland. Under åren 1976-86 dodade rovdjur totalt 11 295 renar i finska renskotselområdet. Kalvar och vajor utgjorde huvuddelen av dessa. Med undantag av Kåsivarsi och Muotkatunturi renbeteslag, var rovdjursrivningarna konsentrerade i renbeteslagen nårmast ostra grånsen. Under åren 1976-86 blev de fiesta renar rivna i april-juni. Av dessa var det flest kalvar. Varg tog flest renar (26,9%), bjorn 24,7%, jårv 22,6%, och orn 15,9%. Varg, bjorn, jårv och lo dodade mestadels vuxna renar, medan orn i huvudsak tog kalvar. Varg dodade ren våsentligen i månaderna oktober-januari, lo i januari-april, jårv i februari-april, orn i mai-juli och bjorn genom må-naderna mai-oktober. De senaste åren har antalet renar rivna av lodjur okat i Finland.</p>