Regional Greenhouse Gas Emissions Research Articles

ADAPTATION OF AN AGRICULTURAL PROJECT TO THE REGULATION OF GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS

Using an original methodological approach, a model analysis of the adaptation of an agricultural project to the regulation of greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural land was carried out for the farms in the south of Russia. Emissions from both technological and ecosystem processes were taken into account. Methods of operations research and simulation modeling are applied to the study of two options for regulating greenhouse gas emissions, i.e. through market mechanisms focusing on the cost of carbon units in the EU and through the administrative control, which sets the emission limits. For each of the options, the optimal intensity of use was estimated for each land plot involved in the project.The proposed methodology supplements the scientific and methodological support for the analysis of the largescale agricultural projects under the state regulation of the impact of economic activities on the Earth’s climate. It is applicable to projects with a significant spatial dispersion of plots. As a result of the study, the scientific visions of the climate policy impact on the technological configuration of agricultural production were specified. A significant margin of sustainability of agriculture in the south of Russia to carbon market methods has been revealed; It is shown that as the restrictive administrative approaches are tightened, farmers prefer to stop the intensive use of areas with the highest productivity potential while maintaining the maximum production intensity within the rest. The totality of the results obtained is recommended for practical application for developing and analyzing investment agricultural projects, including the analysis of project risks, as well as for improving the state environmental and climate policy as a tool for analyzing its consequences.

The role of microbial communities in biogeochemical cycles and greenhouse gas emissions within tropical soda lakes

Although anthropogenic activities are the primary drivers of increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, it is crucial to acknowledge that wetlands are a significant source of these gases. Brazil's Pantanal, the largest tropical inland wetland, includes numerous lacustrine systems with freshwater and soda lakes. This study focuses on soda lakes to explore potential biogeochemical cycling and the contribution of biogenic GHG emissions from the water column, particularly methane. Both seasonal variations and the eutrophic status of each examined lake significantly influenced GHG emissions. Eutrophic turbid lakes (ET) showed remarkable methane emissions, likely due to cyanobacterial blooms. The decomposition of cyanobacterial cells, along with the influx of organic carbon through photosynthesis, accelerated the degradation of high organic matter content in the water column by the heterotrophic community. This process released byproducts that were subsequently metabolized in the sediment leading to methane production, more pronounced during periods of increased drought. In contrast, oligotrophic turbid lakes (OT) avoided methane emissions due to high sulfate levels in the water, though they did emit CO2 and N2O. Clear vegetated oligotrophic turbid lakes (CVO) also emitted methane, possibly from organic matter input during plant detritus decomposition, albeit at lower levels than ET. Over the years, a concerning trend has emerged in the Nhecolândia subregion of Brazil's Pantanal, where the prevalence of lakes with cyanobacterial blooms is increasing. This indicates the potential for these areas to become significant GHG emitters in the future. The study highlights the critical role of microbial communities in regulating GHG emissions in soda lakes, emphasizing their broader implications for global GHG inventories. Thus, it advocates for sustained research efforts and conservation initiatives in this environmentally critical habitat.

Three years of CO2, CH4 and N2O fluxes from different sheepfolds in a semiarid steppe region, China

To better assess greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from livestock folds in semi-arid steppe zones and reduce uncertainties in regional and national GHG emission inventories, we measured the fluxes of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) from sheepfolds under contrasting management regimes (i.e., summer sheepfolds under continuous and rotational grazing strategies and the winter sheepfold) for 3 consecutive years. Our results showed that these GHG fluxes had high intra-annual and interannual variations, emphasizing the importance of multi-year measurement for achieving temporally representative annual budgets. Sheep presence and temperature appeared to be the key factors driving CH4, CO2 and N2O fluxes from sheepfolds, e.g., higher GHG emissions usually occurred in seasons with sheep presence. However, the sheepfold type exerted a distinct influence on the temperature sensitivity of GHG fluxes, i.e., the Q10 values for GHG fluxes were generally higher in summer sheepfolds than in winter sheepfold. The annual CH4, CO2 and N2O emissions for the 3 sheepfolds were estimated to be 1.5–16.5 kg C ha−1 yr−1 (or 1.9–2.6 g C yr−1sheep−1), 8.6–16.0 t C ha−1 yr−1 (or 5.1–6.6 kg C yr−1sheep−1) and 28.3–41.9 kg N ha−1 yr−1 (or 19.0–26.8 g N yr−1sheep−1), respectively. Averaging across the 3 years, the annual net GHG emissions (CH4 + CO2 + N2O) for all sheepfolds ranged from 47 to 71 t CO2-eq ha−1 yr−1 (or 27–36 kg CO2-eq yr−1 sheep−1), of which CO2 and N2O emissions contributed the most; moreover, the annual net GHG emissions had no significant differences between sheepfold types or grazing strategies. Given that local steppe soils have a lower magnitude of soil respiration (CO2) and N2O emissions and are also net sink for atmospheric CH4, the sheepfold sites in this region are undoubtedly one of the significant hotspots for GHG emissions and could be key areas to focus mitigation action.

Regional-scale energy-water nexus framework to assess the GHG emissions under climate change and development scenarios via system dynamics approach

Nowadays, the consumption of natural resources is increasing due to population growth, climate change, and development. Considering the crucial impacts of the regional characteristics, this study develops an energy-water-emissions (EWE) nexus model using a system dynamics (SD) framework to assess the pattern of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The model simulates regional GHG emissions (including indirect emissions of the electricity sector) under climate change and development scenarios from 2011 to 2031. The results indicate that total emissions are projected to increase in the future, while water-related emissions are expected to decrease. The study highlights the limitations of global assumptions at the regional scale, emphasizing the need for planning based on specific regional scale conditions. Through evaluating different development scenarios, the energy-saving scenario had the greatest impact on reducing emissions and resource consumption. Additionally, the results showed that development scenarios had varying effects in each region, highlighting the importance of defining region-specific development scenarios separately. This study offers policymakers valuable insights to enhance their understanding of the climate change effects to evaluate a range of development scenarios more effectively.

Characteristics of extreme meteorological droughts over the Brazilian Pantanal throughout the 21st century

The Brazilian Pantanal is a remarkable ecosystem, encompassing vital aspects such as fish, fruit, and grain production, greenhouse gas emission regulation, temperature and precipitation modulation, and groundwater recharge. However, 2019 and 2020 experienced prolonged and severe drought that profoundly impacted the Pantanal region. Although these impacts are still under review, their effects on wildlife, vegetation, and the local population are undeniable. To enhance our understanding of the magnitude and consequences of the 2019/2020 drought, the present study conducted a comprehensive evaluation of drought occurrences in the Pantanal biome. Utilizing two well-established drought indices, the standard precipitation index (SPI) and the standard precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI), we analyzed the available observational data provided by the Climate Research Unit (CRU). Additionally, we endeavored to project droughts throughout the 21st century, thereby facilitating the visualization of potential reoccurrences of hazardous events in the Pantanal area. Two regional climate model (RCM) ensembles, the Eta ensemble (E1) and CORDEX ensemble (E2), along with representative concentration pathways (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios) were used to project the severity of droughts in the Brazilian Pantanal until 2098/2099. The findings indicate that the hydrological year of 2019/2020 was the driest on record in the Pantanal over the past 80 years. The E1 ensemble did not project such an extreme event, whereas the E2 ensemble forecasted extreme droughts before the 2040s under the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios. Using the SPEI, both ensembles showed similar results, with extreme droughts projected toward the end of the 21st century. Notably, the SPI demonstrated effectiveness in detecting short-term droughts, while the SPEI was more efficient for long-term assessments, projecting extreme drought events for the last two decades. The SPEI, employed with the Eta and CORDEX ensembles, can provide valuable insights into drought projections. Moreover, the potential recurrence of extreme droughts, characterized by significant below-average precipitation spanning vast areas throughout the hydrological year, poses a severe threat to the Pantanal biome in this century.

Environmental regulation effects from the perspective on the industrial chain: evidence from energy enterprises in China

More attention has been paid to environmental regulation of greenhouse gas emissions in the energy industry under the transformation of industrial structure. This paper takes microdata of Chinese energy enterprises from 1998 to 2012 as a sample to build a duty-sharing model, analyzes the effect of environmental regulations on the industrial chain, and explains the “double growth” phenomenon that occurred in China, which is nothing short of miraculous in terms of the environment and economy. In the industrial chain, the environmental obligations and responsibilities will be shared between upstream and downstream enterprises due to trade linkages. This paper finds that environmental responsibilities will move forward through the industrial chain when environmental regulations are strengthened. Downstream companies will loosen “relative” control constraints, thereby expanding output but increasing demand for upstream products. Different from the existing research, we claim that, since environmental regulation has a differential effect on the industrial chain, it will promote the growth of output in the entire chain, in contrast to the theory of “cost compliance”, which claims that environmental regulation will inevitably lead to the output. Based on this research, this paper puts forward some suggestions and insights on how the government implements environmental regulations.

Game-theoretic modeling in regulating greenhouse gas emissions

This research introduces an innovative framework for addressing the escalating issue of greenhouse gas emissions through the integration of game theory with differential equations, proposing a novel model to simulate the regulatory dynamics between emission sources and legislative actions. By blending advanced mathematical modeling with environmental science, this paper underscores the critical necessity for pioneering, proactive strategies in environmental management and policy formulation. Central to our approach is the simulation of interactions within a game-theoretic context, aiming to delineate optimal strategies for emission sources and regulatory bodies, factoring in legislative constraints and environmental ramifications. The methodology employs a system of ordinary differential equations, capturing the dynamic, non-stationary nature of atmospheric processes and offering a realistic portrayal of the challenges in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, the study introduces a fee-based regulatory mechanism designed to encourage emission reductions, highlighting the economic implications of such strategies. Significantly contributing to environmental management, this research presents a detailed model capable of predicting the trajectory of greenhouse gas emissions over a decade, considering the potential impact of technological innovations in emission control. The conclusion emphasizes the promising role of artificial intelligence in refining environmental governance, acknowledging the complexities and limitations inherent in predictive modeling. Aimed at policymakers and environmental scientists, this paper serves as a strategic tool for informed decision-making, advocating for a multidisciplinary approach to develop sustainable, effective solutions to combat one of the most critical environmental challenges facing the globe today.

Energy trade tempers Nile water conflict

The demand for energy, water and food in Africa continues to increase, resulting in growing pressure on contentious multisector resource systems like the River Nile. The ongoing dispute over Nile resources could become a zero-sum game if addressed from a water-centric viewpoint. Understanding how energy system management impacts water infrastructure introduces new opportunities to solve water conflicts. Although benefit-sharing of water resources in the Nile Basin has been promoted to counteract water volume disputes, it has not yielded actionable solutions to the toughest negotiations over the past two decades. Here we develop a detailed and integrated energy–river basin system simulator of 13 East African countries, including the Nile Basin, and show how new electricity trade agreements between Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt could help resolve the ongoing water dispute over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam. The results show that increasing energy trade can reduce Egyptian water deficits, reduce regional greenhouse gas emissions, increase hydropower generation in all three countries, reduce energy curtailment in Sudan and increase Ethiopia’s financial returns from electricity. This study underscores how spatial quantification of river–energy system interdependencies can help decision-makers find actionable multisector benefit-sharing solutions.

Regional emissions of soil greenhouse gases across Tibetan alpine grasslands

Soil greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions play an important role in regional climate feedback on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP). Previous studies have focused on soil GHGs based on observations within a limited space on the QTP, however, the regional GHG emissions remain unclear. Analyzing soil samples from 25 sites along a 2,700 km transect across QTP, we showed significantly higher soil CO2 and N2O emission rates in alpine meadows than other upland grassland types, but similar soil CH4 uptake rates across all grassland types. The spatial variations of total soil GHG balance were dominated by CO2 emission. We found that CO2 emission was primarily constrained by high soil pH, low soil moisture and nutrient availability, and fungal abundance, N2O emission was inhibited by high soil pH, while CH4 uptake was dominated by methanotrophic abundance. Furthermore, we estimated a current regional total soil GHG balance of 144.4 Tg CO2-eq yr−1 for surface soil across Tibetan alpine grasslands, which increased by 17.6%, 24.8%, and 38.9% under warming scenarios of 1.5℃, 2℃ and 3℃, respectively. Our results provide a baseline for regional soil GHG emissions responding to climate warming on the QTP.

Emission Reduction Decisions in Blockchain-Enabled Low-Carbon Supply Chains under Different Power Structures

With the global climate problem becoming increasingly severe, governments have adopted policies to encourage enterprises to invest in low-carbon technologies. However, the opacity of the carbon emission reduction process leads to incomplete consumer trust in low-carbon products as well as higher supply chain transaction costs. Based on this, this paper constructs Stackelberg game models with and without blockchain under different power structures and compares the impact of these models on low-carbon emission reduction decisions. The results show that: (1) blockchain does not necessarily improve enterprise profits and can only help enterprises maintain optimal profits within a certain range when the carbon emission cost is low; (2) when consumers’ environmental awareness is high, the blockchain can incentivize manufacturers to enhance carbon emission reduction, and it has an obvious promotional effect on retailers’ profits; and (3) the profit gap between enterprises in the supply chain is larger under different power structures, and the implementation of blockchain can coordinate profit distribution and narrow the gap between enterprises. Compared with the manufacturer-dominated model, the emission reduction in products is maximized under the retailer-dominated model. Our study provides theoretical support for the government to regulate greenhouse gas emissions as well as for the optimization of enterprises’ decision-making supported by blockchain.

Forest carbon tax and reward: regulating greenhouse gas emissions from industrial logging and deforestation in the US

AbstractIndustrial logging activities associated with land development, agricultural expansion, and tree plantations generate significant greenhouse gas emissions and may undermine climate resilience by making the land more vulnerable to heat waves, water shortages, wildfires, flooding, and other stressors. This paper investigates whether a market-based mechanism—a forest carbon tax and reward program—could play a role in mitigating these climate impacts while advancing the Glasgow Leaders Declaration on Forests and Land Use, which seeks to end deforestation and forest degradation by 2030. We do this by describing key differences between the natural and industrial forest carbon cycle, identifying design features of a program that mimics existing carbon tax mechanisms, demonstrating how that program could be implemented using four US states as an example and completing a cash flow analysis to gauge potential effects on forestland investors. Across the states, we estimate the range of taxable GHG emissions to be 22–57 Mt CO2-e yr−1, emissions factors of 0.91–2.31 Mg C m−3, and potential tax revenues of $56 to $357 million USD yr−1. A model of net present value and internal rate of return for a representative forestland investor suggests that while the tax may reduce profitability somewhat (~ 30%) for a 100,000-acre (40,486 ha) acquisition, it would still generate an attractive rate of return (> 7%), especially for patient capital investors. We conclude that a forest carbon tax program is feasible with existing data available to US state agencies and could be a significant source of funding to promote climate smart forest practices without major disruptions of timber supply or forestland investments.

Prerequisites and prospects for the development of carbon pricing in Belarus

Aim. To consider the retrospective and existing trends in the development of national regulation of greenhouse gas emissions in Belarus, as well as to analyze the prerequisites and assess the prospects for the formation of carbon pricing mechanisms in this jurisdiction.Objectives. To study the economic, institutional and legal aspects of carbon regulation in Belarus; to identify the main problems and challenges for the state arising in the process of development of such regulation, including carbon pricing mechanisms.Methods. Using the methods of economic and legal analysis and comparison we analyzed various aspects of the functioning of the carbon regulation system in Belarus, which allow us to assess its current state and prospects for its development.Results. Currently, the Republic of Belarus is still among the jurisdictions in which the state has not sufficiently formed institutional and legal conditions for the widespread use of carbon pricing instruments, despite the long history of building a system of regulation of greenhouse gas emissions and the attempt to introduce market mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol, which contributed to the creation of the first elements of national infrastructure for trading in carbon units.Conclusions. Among the potential drivers of the development of the carbon market in Belarus and the subsequent export of its carbon units abroad, there is a further convergence of positions and approaches on the climate agenda and carbon regulation between Belarus and Russia, other jurisdictions in the Eurasian space, within the framework of interstate associations; regarding the preparation for potential negative consequences for the national economy associated with the introduction of the European Union mechanism of cross-border carbon regulation.

Tax Regulation of Countries in the Framework of Greening Business (using the example of the Russian Federation and the EU)

In the past three decades, the role of environmental protection in the environmental and climate agenda, which shapes the trends of “green” economic development, has been continuously increasing. The purpose of this study is to examine this issue in the context of the experience of the European Union (EU) and regulatory principles of taxation to prevent the effects of climate change. Using the example of the EU and the Russian Federation, the reaction of a system for economic regulation of greenhouse gas emissions, which is at the initial stage, is considered. A SWOT-analysis of Russia’s “green” exports to the EU countries has been carried out, which contains forecasts of a decline in demand for Russian oil and oil products, coal, gas and metals and an increase in demand for electricity from low-carbon sources. Taking into account the extremely high carbon intensity of all Russian exports and its product and country structure, it is suggested that notable damage may occur after 2026 if the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) expands its product mix and scope. In the presence of significant risks for the Russian Federation in the context of hydrogen energy development, the drivers for increasing competitiveness and the corresponding positions of our country in the conditions of decarbonization are determined, PEST-analysis of the Russian economy on the way to the “green” market course is carried out. The practical significance of the study lies in the proposal to use the experience of tax regulation in the EU countries as part of greening business in the Russian economy.

Regulating Greenhouse Gas Emissions Under the Endangered Species Act

Despite the devastating impact climate change will have on biodiversity, most legal scholars and policymakers are skeptical that the flagship statute for protecting biodiversity in the United States, the Endangered Species Act (ESA), should be deployed to regulate greenhouse gas emissions. This skepticism has been driven by the concern that using the ESA to regulate greenhouse gases could lead to administrative issues, legal chaos, and political backlash that might endanger the Act overall. In this article, I draw on three different elements to argue that the ESA could plausibly be used to regulate greenhouse gases. Specifically, I draw on recent scientific developments that help attribute impacts on biodiversity to climate change; on a common tool in environmental regulation, the general permit; and on key elements of tort law that allow for the division of liability among various actors. Together, these elements mark out a pathway by which the ESA can be used to regulate greenhouse gas emissions, and potentially produce significant funds to pay for the protection of at least some species that are threatened by climate change. I propose developing a general permit system under the ESA that would regulate large sources of greenhouse gas emissions. This system would charge a fee per unit of greenhouse gases emitted that would compensate for the proportional harm that each unit of emissions causes to species threatened by climate change. In turn, those funds can be used to facilitate conservation efforts for species that are protected under the ESA and threatened by climate change. I provide a thorough examination of how such a system would be consistent with the ESA and the implementing regulations and agency guidance documents, how it would work in practice for individual species or emitters, and how likely such a program would be to withstand judicial review. The proposal has implications beyond the ESA. It helps identify the ways in which creative regulatory approaches, such as general permits, can facilitate the adaptation of existing environmental laws, like the ESA, to the current-day context of climate change. Given the increasing impacts of climate change and the difficulties of enacting substantial revisions to environmental laws at the federal level, such creativity will be essential for a range of policy areas.

Regulating Greenhouse Gas Emissions Under the Endangered Regulating Greenhouse Gas Emissions Under the Endangered Species Act Species Act

Regulating Greenhouse Gas Emissions Under the Endangered Regulating Greenhouse Gas Emissions Under the Endangered Species Act Species Act

Russian economy and industry in decarbonization focus: Problems and solutions

The article discusses the main stages of the emergence and awareness of the need for global measures to combat excess greenhouse gas emissions. The main emphasis is placed on the legislative and regulatory aspect, taking into account the opinions of official and interested organizations. The analysis of the materials of publications on the sources of greenhouse gas emissions and the volume of their entry into the atmosphere is carried out. In the Russian Federation, there is a noticeable change in attitude to the situation, both at the level of basic concepts and in the applied aspect. The historical and modern understanding of the greenhouse gas problem has been partially traced. The timber industry is becoming an important component of a set of measures to harmonize the performance of emission producers and carbon depositing companies. The possibility of economic regulation of emissions has the greatest potential in the hands of both the European Union and the Government of the Russian Federation. The quota trading system should become an effective fine-tuned tool in the field of regulating greenhouse gas emissions. The existing quota trading systems in the world are briefly described. Some indicators of the quota trading system for Russian companies are given. The possibilities of the timber industry and the forest fund to compensate for the consequences of the introduction of the “green tax” are presented. The main dangers from the introduction of a “green tax” for the industry of the Russian Federation are assessed. The results of emission calculations for a number of enterprises supplying products for export are analyzed. The main ways of minimizing the consequences of the introduction of a “green tax” for the economy are substantiated.

Estimating the GHGs and the MAC of Agricultural Production Systems in China

As the second largest source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the agricultural system has an arduous task of reducing emissions. There is an urgent need to think about how to achieve the goal of peaking carbon emissions in agricultural production at the lowest cost. This paper applied the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) factor method to calculate the GHG emissions of China’s agricultural production systems and deconstruct it into the crop farming and animal husbandry sectors. Input–output indicators based on parametric directional distance functions were constructed to assess the green production efficiency (GPE) of different agricultural sectors and scientifically quantify the marginal abatement costs (MACs) of different GHGs. The results showed the following: (a) During 2000 to 2020, GHG emissions from China’s agricultural production systems averaged 87.73 million tons of CO 2 -eq and showed a fluctuating downward trend. CH 4 emissions accounted for the largest average proportion of 55%, mainly animal enteric fermentation and rice methane emissions. (b) The average level of agricultural GPE in China is 0.79, and 0.76 for crop farming is slightly higher than 0.67 for animal husbandry. (c) The average MAC is 1,861.71 yuan/ton CO 2 -eq, and it is increasing year by year. The shadow price is positively correlated with the efficiency level. The “high-efficiency–low-cost” areas are key areas for agricultural emission reduction, such as Henan and Shandong provinces. Formulate emission reduction strategies according to the characteristics of regional GHG emissions to promote the realization of the “dual carbon” goal of agriculture.

Equal importance of humic acids and nitrate in driving anaerobic oxidation of methane in paddy soils

Methane (CH4) is both generated and consumed in paddy soils, where anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) serves as a crucial process for mitigating CH4 emissions. Although the participation of humic acids (HA) and nitrate in AOM has been recognized, their relative roles and significance in paddy soils remain insufficiently investigated. In this study, we explored the potential activity of AOM driven by HA and nitrate, as well as the composition of archaeal communities in paddy soils across different rice growth periods and fertilization treatments. AOM activity ranged from 0.81 to 1.33 and 1.26 to 2.38 nmol of 13CO2 g−1 (dry soil) day−1 with HA and nitrate, respectively. No significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed between the AOM activity driven by HA and nitrate across the three fertilization treatments. According to AOM activity, the annual consumption of CH4 was estimated at approximately 0.49 ± 0.06 and 0.83 ± 0.19 Tg for AOM processes driven by HA and nitrate in Chinese paddy soils. Nitrate-driven AOM activity exhibited a positive (p < 0.05) correlation with the abundance of the ANME-2d mcrA gene but a negative (p < 0.05) correlation with the content of dissolved organic carbon. Intriguingly, HA-driven AOM activity was only correlated positively with the nitrate-driven AOM activity. Soil water content, soil organic carbon, nitrate and nitrite contents were significantly correlated with the relative abundance of methanogenic and methanotrophic archaea. These results identified the potential importance of HA and nitrate in driving AOM processes within paddy soils, providing a comprehensive understanding of the complex microbial processes regulating greenhouse gas emissions from paddy soils.

Mind the gap and close it: Regulating greenhouse gas emissions from deep-sea mining in the Area

Deep-sea mining (DSM) will be highly energy-intensive and produce myriad emissions, including greenhouse gases (GHG). By and large, the emissions arising from DSM activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction (‘The Area’) do not yet fall within the remit of any international agreement and are thus unregulated. To close this gap, two incisive steps need to be taken. First, States must decide under which international regime(s) they want to regulate GHG-emissions from DSM operations (forum choice). Second, they must select the means to mitigate emissions (instrument choice). Forum and instrument choice should be decided in tandem as forum choice tends to influence instrument choice and vice versa. We explore the various possibilities and argue that the International Seabed Authority (ISA) is the most suitable forum, as it could implement a harmonized and targeted approach for this unique sector. We recommend that the ISA commission a technical study to assess the amount of GHG emissions expected to arise from DSM activities in the Area and evaluate the costs and benefits of implementing and enforcing various policy instruments. Such an exercise is both urgently needed and timely, particularly as the ISA is currently formulating the rules for mineral exploitation.

Crawling with a vehicle: Rock-crawlers’ recreation specialization, motivation, and sources of challenges

Rock crawling, an off-road vehicle (ORV) activity for which drivers use highly modified ORVs to climb over extreme terrain and rock obstacles, is an outdoor adventure activity. This thrill-seeking outdoor activity requires specialized skills and knowledge to overcome challenges and remain engaged. This study aims to investigate the relationship between rock crawlers' motivations and the sources of challenges, as well as variations in that relationship due to the different levels of specialization among rock crawlers. A total of 377 rock crawling participants completed the online survey, with 11% self-classifying as novice rock crawlers, 46% as intermediate rock crawlers, and 43% as advanced rock crawlers. Through exploratory factor analysis (EFA), four motivation factors and seven sources of rock crawling challenges were identified. The results of canonical correlation analysis revealed positive associations between rock crawlers' motivations, including socialization, relaxation and freedom, self-expression, and sense of achievement, and the sources of challenges such as environmental uncertainty, activity difficulty, and competition in rock crawling. Furthermore, the results of multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicated variations in rock crawlers’ motivations and sources of challenges across the three specialized groups. Management implicationsThe study aims to assist public land management agencies in integrating social science research into the decision-making process and sustainable management for off-roading on public land. To operate a sustainable rock crawling program, management should emphasize: (1) providing sufficient accommodations and access to fulfill socialization needs while ensuring safety; (2) organizing special events or competitions to enhance rock crawlers’ psychological well-being and life satisfaction; (3) executing targeted marketing campaigns to attract committed or advanced rock crawlers, thereby contributing to the local economy; and (4) advocating for clean energy consumption and regulating greenhouse gas emissions.