Regulation Of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Research Articles

Downregulation of AP1S1 causes the lysosomal degradation of EGFR in non-small cell lung cancer.

Matrix stiffness has been shown to play a critical role in cancer progression by influencing various cellular processes, including epidermal growth factor (EGF) signaling. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. Here, we investigated the role of adaptor-related protein complex 1 subunit sigma 1 (AP1S1), a component of adaptor protein complex-1, in the regulation of EGF receptor (EGFR) intracellular trafficking during cancer cell progression. We found that AP1S1 expression was upregulated under stiff matrix conditions, resulting in the regulation of EGFR trafficking in non-small cell lung adenocarcinoma cells. Knockout of AP1S1 caused the lysosomal degradation of EGFR, leading to suppressed EGF-induced anaplastic lymphoma receptor tyrosine kinase phosphorylation. In addition, the downregulation of AP1S1 increased the sensitivity of H1975 cancer cells, which are resistant to tyrosine kinase inhibitors, to erlotinib. Collectively, our results suggest that AP1S1 could regulate EGFR recycling under stiff matrix conditions, and AP1S1 inhibition could be a novel strategy for treating cancer cells resistant to EGFR-targeted anticancer drugs.

Anabolic phenotype in cartilage-specific mitogen-inducible gene-6 knockout mice is independent of transforming growth factor-α

Background/objectiveOsteoarthritis (OA) is a whole joint disorder with no disease modifying treatment currently available. The Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) signaling pathway plays an important role in cartilage/bone development and its ligand transforming growth factor-α (TGFα) is upregulated in OA. In contrast, Mitogen-inducible gene 6 (Mig6) is a negative regulator of EGFR, and cartilage-specific Mig-6 deletion results in anabolic effects on cartilage and formation of chondro-osseus nodules (CON). We aimed to attenuate EGFR signaling by inhibiting TGFα production in cartilage-specific Mig6 deficient mice, to test whether this would prevent the formation of CONs. MethodsWe generated double knockout mice by crossing cartilage-specific Mig-6fl/flCol2a1-Cre+/− and whole-body Tgfa± mice to generate experimental and control wild-type mice. Knee and elbow sections were used to examine articular cartilage thickness, cell density, and osteoclast presence. Additionally, immunohistochemistry was completed to analyze phospho-EGFR and SOX9. ResultsMig-6 deficient mice display cartilage thickening and CONs at 12 weeks in both the elbow and knee joints, which is independent of TGFα ligand presence. Similarly, articular cartilage cell density is increased in Mig6-cKO/Tgfa-KO and Mig6-cKOmice, but not Tgfa-KO mice, and displays increased SOX9 and phospho-EGFR staining. ConclusionThe articular cartilage displays increased thickness/cell density and CON formation independent of the presence of TGFα, suggesting the anabolic phenotype in the Mig6-deficient mice is independent of TGFα/EGFR binding. The anabolic phenotype may be due to an alternative EGFR ligand activation, or other non-EGFR specific mechanism. More research is required to elucidate the exact pathway responsible for the anabolic effects.

A new paradigm for epidermal growth factor receptor expression exists in PTC and NIFTP regulated by microRNAs.

Identification of molecular alterations associated with tumor behavior is necessary to guide clinical management. The 2022 WHO classification has organized the thyroid follicular cell-derived neoplasms into benign, low-risk and high-risk neoplasms, and emphasized the value of biomarkers that may provide differential diagnostic and prognostic information to avoid overtreatment of low risk neoplasms. This work aims to study the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) expression, functional and spatial dynamics in relation to specific miRNAs alterations in papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) and in non-invasive follicular thyroid neoplasm with papillary-like nuclear features (NIFTP) considered as models of high-risk and low-risk thyroid tumors respectively. Primary thyroid cultured cells were used for miRNA gain/loss of function and luciferase reporter assays. Paraffin embedded tissues were used for real time PCR, immuno-fluorescence stain and confocal microscopy experiments. Our results showed that in PTC, EGFR mRNA is reduced as an effect of miR-146b-5p upregulation. The EGF expression is low and the ERK pathway is inhibited. The EGFR protein high cytoplasmic expression and colocalization with the endosomal/exosomal markers, ALIX and CD63, suggest the occurrence of stress-induced EGFR internalization, accumulation in endosomal vesicles and secretion via exosomes. In NIFTP EGFR transcription is increased in association with downregulation of miR-7-5p and the EGFR/ERK pathway is active indicating dependence on the canonical EGFR pathway for growth. Downregulation of transcript level along with cytoplasmic accumulation of undegraded protein is a new pattern of EGFR regulation associated with malignancy in thyroid. Further research is needed to elucidate the intracellular trafficking defects responsible for this specific EGFR dynamic in PTC.

Feedback activation of EGFR/wild-type RAS signaling axis limits KRASG12D inhibitor efficacy in KRASG12D-mutated colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC), which shows a high degree of heterogeneity, is the third most deadly cancer worldwide. Mutational activation of KRASG12D occurs in approximately 10–12% of CRC cases, but the susceptibility of KRASG12D-mutated CRC to the recently discovered KRASG12D inhibitor MRTX1133 has not been fully defined. Here, we report that MRTX1133 treatment caused reversible growth arrest in KRASG12D-mutated CRC cells, accompanied by partial reactivation of RAS effector signaling. Through a drug-anchored synthetic lethality screen, we discovered that epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibition was synthetic lethal with MRTX1133. Mechanistically, MRTX1133 treatment downregulated the expression of ERBB receptor feedback inhibitor 1 (ERRFI1), a crucial negative regulator of EGFR, thereby causing EGFR feedback activation. Notably, wild-type isoforms of RAS, including H-RAS and N-RAS, but not oncogenic K-RAS, mediated signaling downstream of activated EGFR, leading to RAS effector signaling rebound and reduced MRTX1133 efficacy. Blockade of activated EGFR with clinically used antibodies or kinase inhibitors suppressed the EGFR/wild-type RAS signaling axis, sensitized MRTX1133 monotherapy, and caused the regression of KRASG12D-mutant CRC organoids and cell line-derived xenografts. Overall, this study uncovers feedback activation of EGFR as a prominent molecular event that restricts KRASG12D inhibitor efficacy and establishes a potential combination therapy consisting of KRASG12D and EGFR inhibitors for patients with KRASG12D-mutated CRC.

Dephosphorylation of the EGFR protein by calcineurin at serine 1046/1047 enhances its stability

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is highly expressed or abnormally activated in several types of cancers, such as lung and colorectal cancers. Inhibitors that suppress the tyrosine kinase activity of EGFR have been used in the treatment of lung cancer. However, resistance to these inhibitors has become an issue in cancer treatment, and the development of new therapies that inhibit EGFR is desired. We found that calcineurin, a Ca2+/calmodulin-activated serine/threonine phosphatase, is a novel regulator of EGFR. Inhibition of calcineurin by FK506 treatment or calcineurin depletion promoted EGFR degradation in cancer cells. In addition, we found that calcineurin dephosphorylates EGFR at serine (S)1046/1047, which in turn stabilizes EGFR. Furthermore, in human colon cancer cells transplanted into mice, the inhibition of calcineurin by FK506 decreased EGFR expression. These results indicate that calcineurin stabilizes EGFR by dephosphorylating S1046/1047 and promotes tumor growth. These findings suggest that calcineurin may be a new therapeutic target for cancers with high EGFR expression or activation.

Non-canonical Regulation of EGFR by the Air Pollutant 9,10-Phenanthrenequinone.

9,10-Phenanthrenequinone (9,10-PQ), a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon that is present in air pollutants, such as diesel exhaust gas and PM2.5, causes the production of excess reactive oxygen species. 9,10-PQ was recently shown to induce the activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) by inhibiting protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B. In the present study, we focused on the non-canonical regulation of EGFR, including negative feedback and internalization. In contrast to previous findings, 9,10-PQ inhibited the constitutive tyrosine phosphorylation of EGFR via the mitogen-activated protein extracellular kinase (MEK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-mediated phosphorylation of Thr-669 in EGFR-overexpressing A431 and MDA-MB-468 cells. In addition, 9,10-PQ induced the clathrin-mediated endocytosis of EGFR via the p38 phosphorylation of Ser-1015 in HeLa and A549 cells. These results revealed that 9,10-PQ strongly induced the non-canonical regulation of EGFR by activating mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK).

TFAP2C Knockdown Sensitizes Bladder Cancer Cells to Cisplatin Treatment via Regulation of EGFR and NF-κB.

Simple SummaryBladder cancer (BCa) is considered one of the most common neoplasms of the urology system. Cisplatin-based chemotherapy has been the primary treatment for patients with advanced or metastatic BCa. Nevertheless, cisplatin resistance often limits the treatment of bladder cancer. We expect to find approaches to improve the therapeutic efficacy of cisplatin in bladder cancer. In recent years, many studies have shown that transcription factor AP-2 gamma (TFAP2C) acts as a key player in cancer development and and its expression level is closely related to the sensitivity of tumors to cisplatin. Our study investigated whether TFAP2C affects the sensitivity of BCa cells to cisplatin and the possible mechanisms. We found that TFAP2C expression was significantly upregulated in most BCa tissues compared to adjacent normal tissues. The present study confirmed that TFAP2C knockdown enhanced the anti-tumor effects of cisplatin by decreasing cisplatin-induced activation levels of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB). Specifically, this study provides a novel approach to improve the efficacy of cisplatin.Cisplatin is the first-line chemotherapy for advanced or metastatic bladder cancer. Nevertheless, approximately half of patients with BCa are insensitive to cisplatin therapy or develop cisplatin resistance during the treatment process. Therefore, it is especially crucial to investigate ways to enhance the sensitivity of tumor cells to cisplatin. Transcription factor AP-2 gamma (TFAP2C) is involved in cancer development and chemotherapy sensitivity. However, its relationship with chemotherapy has not been studied in BCa. In this study, we aimed to investigate the therapeutic potential of TFAP2C in human BCa. Results based on TCGA (The Cancer Genome Atlas), GTEx (The Genotype-Tissue Expression) and GEO (Gene Expression Omnibus) data showed that TFAP2C expression was upregulated in BCa tissues and that its high expression was associated with poor prognosis. Meanwhile, we demonstrated the overexpression of TFAP2C in BCa clinical specimens. Subsequently, in vitro, we knocked down TFAP2C in BCa cells and found that TFAP2C knockdown further increased cell cycle arrest and apoptosis caused by cisplatin. In addition, the inhibitory effect of cisplatin on BCa cell migration and invasion was enhanced by TFAP2C knockdown. Our data indicated that cisplatin increased epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) activation levels, but TFAP2C knockdown suppressed this effect. Finally, in vivo data further validated these findings. Our study showed that TFAP2C knockdown affected the activation levels of EGFR and NF-κB and enhanced the anti-tumor effects of cisplatin in vivo and in vitro. This provides a new direction to improve the efficacy of traditional cisplatin chemotherapy.

Insights into the negative regulation of EGFR upon the binding of an allosteric inhibitor.

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is an intensively focused drug target for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). JBJ-04-125-02 is an effective ATP-noncompetitive and T790M/L858R-selective inhibitor of EGFR, but the implied negative regulation mechanism is not fully clarified. Here, computational approaches were employed to address this. We find that JBJ-04-125-02 induces contrary effects on the binding of adenosine and phosphate moieties of ATP. The allosteric inhibitor lowers the stability of the hinge region, affecting the anchor of the adenosine portion of ATP, while a more closed conformation of P-loop is observed and might be unfavorable for the phosphotransfer and product release. The umbrella sampling simulations further demonstrate that less free energy is needed for the initial dissociation of ATP (the adenosine group) from the inactive EGFR in the presence of JBJ-04-125-02, but more for the phosphate groups egressing from the active cavity. Together, these findings provide a deeper understanding of the negative regulation of JBJ-04-125-02. Moreover, the key inter-molecular interactions contributing to ATP binding are identified. Our work might pave the way for designing allosteric drugs targeting EGFR for lung cancer patients, and also suggests that computational techniques are effective for investigating the allosteric mechanism.

Abstract PD10-08: Remodeling the inflammatory breast cancer tumor microenvironment to enhance immunotherapy: Novel therapeutic development

Abstract Background: Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is the most lethal and aggressive form of breast cancer, yet no targeted therapy has been approved specifically for this disease. There is a critical need for innovative treatment approaches for patients with IBC. There is a paucity of data on immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in IBC, yet a strong biological rationale exists to lay the groundwork for testing the efficacy of ICIs in IBC. We have previously shown that an anti–epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) antibody, panitumumab (sponsored by Amgen), combined with Abraxane (sponsored by Bristol Myers Squibb), and carboplatin followed by 5-fluorouracil, epirubicin, and cyclophosphamide achieves a very high pathologic complete response (42%) in patients with triple-negative receptor status (TN-IBC) (NCT01036087). We hypothesize that inducing a broad shift in the IBC tumor microenvironment (TME), a critical driver of the IBC clinical phenotype and metastasis, from an immunosuppressive to an immunoreactive phenotype can enhance the efficacy of ICIs. Here we report the impact of targeting EGFR on ICI effectiveness by modulating the immunosuppressive TME in TN-IBC. Methods: We examined the effects of panitumumab on components of the immune TME in IBC patient tissues collected before and after panitumumab treatment. Furthermore, we analyzed panitumumab effects in an IBC SUM149 humanized mouse model (SUM149-hu-NSG-SGM3) by using multiplex immunofluorescence staining (mIF) of single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) and multicolor flow cytometry. We examined the changes in chemokines in humanized mouse tissue after panitumumab treatment using a cytokine antibody array and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). We also studied the mechanism of EGFR regulation of immunosuppressive chemokine expression via transcription factor EGR1 by using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Western blotting, and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays. In addition, we tested the efficacy of panitumumab combined with anti-PD-L1 antibody (Bio X Cell, clone 29E.2A3) in reducing IBC tumor growth in a humanized IBC SUM149 mouse model. Results: IBC patients who achieved pathologic complete response after receiving panitumumab/neoadjuvant chemotherapy had increased levels of CD8+ T-cells and decreased levels of M2 macrophages and T-reg cells. In the humanized mouse model, panitumumab treatment reduced IBC tumor growth and increased immune response that favors an antitumor effect, as shown by scRNA-seq, flow cytometry, and mIF analyses. In addition, we observed that panitumumab treatment increased the expression of chemokines that function as a chemoattractant for CD8+ T-cells, including CXCL10, CCL4, and CXCL9. We also observed that panitumumab treatment reduced EGR1 expression, leading to the downregulation of chemokines involved in the recruitment of immunosuppressive M2 macrophages and T-reg cells, including CCL2, CCL20 CXCL5, and IL-8. Finally, panitumumab enhanced the reduction in tumor growth by anti-PD-L1 antibody treatment; furthermore, the combination of panitumumab and anti-PD-L1 antibody increased the presence of CD8+ T-cells and reduced the presence of T-reg cells and M2 macrophages more effectively than either treatment alone. Conclusion: Panitumumab treatment converts the immunosuppressive IBC TME to an immunoreactive status by modulating the global expression of chemokines by downregulating the EGR1 transcription factor. This modulation of the TME by panitumumab improves the inhibition of IBC tumor growth by an ICI. Our study is the first to demonstrate that targeting the EGFR/EGR1 axis remodels the IBC TME by regulating chemokine expression, thus boosting the antitumor immune response in IBC and response to ICI. Citation Format: Xiaoping Wang, Takashi Semba, Ganiraju C. Manyam, Jing Wang, Shan Shao, Francois Bertucci, Pascal Finetti, Savitri Krishnamurthy, Lan ThiHanh Phi, Troy Pearson, Jared K. Burks, Evan N. Cohen, James M. Reuben, Fei Yang, Hu Min, Nicholas Navin, Toshiaki Iwase, Yichao Shen, Xiang Zhang, Debu Tripathy, Naoto T. Ueno. Remodeling the inflammatory breast cancer tumor microenvironment to enhance immunotherapy: Novel therapeutic development [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 2021 San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium; 2021 Dec 7-10; San Antonio, TX. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(4 Suppl):Abstract nr PD10-08.

Root extract of Plumbago zeylanica L. induces cytotoxicity, inhibits cell migration and induces S-phase cell cycle arrest through down regulation of EGFR in HeLa cervical cancer cells

Plumbago zeylanica has been used in the traditional system of medicine from thousands of years owing to its potential therapeutic properties, however the anticancer and anti-metastatic effects are largely unknown against cervical cancer cells. In this study we demonstrated the cytotoxicity activity, inhibition of cell migration, induction of S-phase cell cycle arrest and the down regulation of expression level of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) by ethanol extract of the root of P. zeylanica (ERPZ). The cytotoxicity effects were analyzed by MTT assay the IC50 was determined to be 10.49 ​μg/ml after 72 ​h of incubation. Besides, strong inhibition of wound healing activity was observed at 20 ​μg/ml concentration, where the wound size was reduced to 33%. The ethanol root extract of P. zeylanica also showed significant S-phase cell cycle arrest of 68.9% at 20 ​μg/ml concentration in HeLa cells which was accompanied by the down regulation of EGFR. Ethanol extracts of the root of P. zeylanica (ERPZ) treatment inhibited the growth of cervical cancer cells. The ERPZ arrested cells at the S-phase of the cell cycle. Besides the HRLC-MS analysis of ERPZ identified 15 compounds and among which the five major compounds such as 7,8-dihydroxy-4-methylcoumarin, neodiosmin, diosmetin, hispidulin, and formononetin were reported to possess antioxidant and anticancer activities, could plausibly induce cell death in HeLa cells.

Regulation of EGFR signalling by palmitoylation and its role in tumorigenesis.

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is an essential driver of oncogenic signalling, and EGFR inhibitors are some of the earliest examples of successful targeted therapies in multiple types of cancer. The tractability of EGFR as a therapeutic target is overshadowed by the inevitable drug resistance that develops. Overcoming resistance mechanisms requires a deeper understanding of EGFR regulation in cancer cells. In this review, we discuss our recent discovery that the palmitoyltransferase DHHC20 palmitoylates EGFR on the C-terminal domain and plays a critical role in signal regulation during oncogenesis. Inhibiting DHHC20 expression or mutating the palmitoylation site on EGFR alters the EGF-induced signalling kinetics from a transient signal to a sustained signal. The change in signalling is accompanied by a decrease in cell proliferation in multiple human cancer cell lines. Our in vivo studies demonstrate that ablating the gene Zdhhc20 by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated inhibition in a mouse model of oncogenic Kras-driven lung adenocarcinoma potently inhibits tumorigenesis. The negative effect on tumorigenesis is mediated by EGFR since the expression of a palmitoylation-resistant mutant form of EGFR also inhibits Kras-driven lung adenocarcinoma. Finally, reducing EGFR palmitoylation increases the sensitivity of multiple cancer cell lines to existing inhibitors of EGFR and downstream signalling effector pathways. We will discuss the implications of these effects and strategies for targeting these new vulnerabilities.

Abstract 1817: Epidermal growth factor receptor alters major histocompatibility complex class I expression on pancreatic cancer cells

Abstract Pancreatic cancer is one of the deadliest neoplasms, with a poor 5-year survival rate of just 10%. The ability of pancreatic cancer cells to evade the immune system hinders an anti-tumor response and contributes to the poor survival rate. In some cases, down regulation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I cell-surface expression aids in immune evasion by preventing endogenous tumor antigens from being presented to cytotoxic T cells. The goal of this study is to evaluate the role epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) plays in the regulation of MHC class I expression by pancreatic cancer cells. Pancreatic cancer cell lines were treated with epidermal growth factor (EGF) or transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-alpha) to activate EGFR or with the small molecule drug erlotinib to inhibit EGFR. Immunoprecipitation, western blot analysis, and flow cytometry were used to analyze cells' MHC class I expression post treatment. Human pancreatic cancer cell lines (BxPC-3, T3M4, S2-013, Panc-1) were found to decrease MHC class I expression after EGFR activation by EGF. However, activation of EGFR via TGF-alpha led to differential effects on MHC class I expression in a cell line-dependent manner. EGFR inhibition by erlotinib led to increased MHC class I expression by greater than 2.5-fold on both human and mouse pancreatic cancer cells. Mechanistic studies were done to evaluate the role of src homology 2 phosphatase (SHP2) in EGFR's regulation of MHC class I in pancreatic cancer cells, since in head and neck cancer cells SHP2 can be phosphorylated by activated EGFR and subsequently dephosphorylate STAT1 and reduce MHC class I expression. Following SHP2 knockdown by siRNA transfection, a slight increase in MHC class I expression was observed on pancreatic cancer cells, suggesting SHP2 has a minor down-regulatory role in MHC class I expression in these cells. EGFR was found to co-immunoprecipitate with MHC class I, indicating that EGFR might directly affect MHC class I expression by facilitating its endocytosis. However, after EGFR inhibition, no change in the MHC class I cell surface turnover rate was observed. Other potential mechanisms for EGFR regulation of MHC class I expression are currently being evaluated. Our discoveries defining a role for activated EGFR in reducing MHC class I expression and revealing that EGFR inhibitors can boost MHC class I levels on cancer cells could facilitate the adoption of new, more effective therapeutic tactics that combine the use of EGFR inhibitors with immunotherapies to augment patients' immune systems for effective targeting and killing of cancer cells. Citation Format: Shelby M. Knoche, Joyce C. Solheim. Epidermal growth factor receptor alters major histocompatibility complex class I expression on pancreatic cancer cells [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2021; 2021 Apr 10-15 and May 17-21. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2021;81(13_Suppl):Abstract nr 1817.

CircMYBL2 regulates the resistance of cervical cancer cells to paclitaxel via miR-665-dependent regulation of EGFR.

Circular RNAs are considered to be associated with cancer resistance. This study aims to investigate the function and mechanism of circMYBL2 in paclitaxel (PTX) resistance of cervical cancer (CC). The expression of circMYBL2, miR-665 and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) was investigated using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction assay. Cell viability, cell colony number, cell proliferation, apoptosis and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were detected by 3-(4, 5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, colony formation, 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine incorporation, flow cytometry and LDH release assays, respectively. The interaction between miR-665 and circMYBL2 or EGFR was confirmed by dual-luciferase reporter assay. The protein expression levels were quantified by western blot or immunohistochemistry assay. Mice xenograft models were constructed to investigate the effect of circMYBL2 on CC tumor growth. CircMYBL2 was upregulated in CC tissues and cells, especially in PTX-resistant CC tissues and cells, and it was a stable circRNA mainly distributed in the cytoplasm. CircMYBL2 could enhance the PTX resistance of CC cells in vitro and promote CC tumor growth in vivo. Mechanistically, circMYBL2 could inhibit the PTX sensitivity and promote cell malignant behaviors in PTX-sensitive and PTX-resistant CC cells via upregulating EGFR mediated by miR-665. CircMYBL2 played a positive role in the PTX resistance and malignant activities of PTX-sensitive and PTX-resistant CC cells by regulating the miR-665/EGFR network, providing a novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of CC patients resistant to PTX.

MTOR-Rictor-EGFR axis in oncogenesis and diagnosis of glioblastoma multiforme.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the aggressive brain cancers with patients having less survival period upto 12-15months. Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a serine/threonine kinase, belongs to the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases (PI3K) pathway and is involved in various cellular processes of cancer cells. Cancer metabolism is regulated by mTOR and its components. mTOR forms two complexes as mTORC1 and mTORC2. Studies have identified the key component of the mTORC2 complex, Rapamycin-insensitive companion of mammalian target of rapamycin (Rictor) plays a prominent role in the regulation of cancer cell proliferation and metabolism. Apart, growth factor receptor signaling such as epidermal growth factor signaling mediated by epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) regulates cancer-related processes. In EGFR signaling various other signaling cascades such as phosphatidyl-inositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR pathway) and Ras/Raf/mitogen-activated protein kinase/ERK kinase (MEK)/extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) -dependent signaling cross-talk each other. From various studies about GBM, it is very well established that Rictor and EGFR mediated signaling pathways majorly playing a pivotal role in chemoresistance and tumor aggressiveness. Recent studies have shown that non-coding RNAs such as microRNAs (miRs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) regulate the EGFR and Rictor and sensitize the cells towards chemotherapeutic agents. Thus, understanding of microRNA mediated regulation of EGFR and Rictor will help in cancer prevention and management as well as a future therapy.

NRF2 Enables EGFR Signaling in Melanoma Cells.

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) are rarely mutated in cutaneous melanoma, but the expression and activation of several RTK family members are associated with a proinvasive phenotype and therapy resistance. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a member of the RTK family and is only expressed in a subgroup of melanomas with poor prognosis. The insight into regulators of EGFR expression and activation is important for the understanding of the development of this malignant melanoma phenotype. Here, we describe that the transcription factor NRF2, the master regulator of the oxidative and electrophilic stress response, mediates the expression and activation of EGFR in melanoma by elevating the levels of EGFR as well as its ligands EGF and TGFα. ChIP sequencing data show that NRF2 directly binds to the promoter of EGF, which contains a canonical antioxidant response element. Accordingly, EGF is induced by oxidative stress and is also increased in lung adenocarcinoma and head and neck carcinoma with mutationally activated NRF2. In contrast, regulation of EGFR and TGFA occurs by an indirect mechanism, which is enabled by the ability of NRF2 to block the activity of the melanocytic lineage factor MITF in melanoma. MITF effectively suppresses EGFR and TGFA expression and therefore serves as link between NRF2 and EGFR. As EGFR was previously described to stimulate NRF2 activity, the mutual activation of NRF2 and EGFR pathways was investigated. The presence of NRF2 was necessary for full EGFR pathway activation, as NRF2-knockout cells showed reduced AKT activation in response to EGF stimulation compared to controls. Conversely, EGF led to the nuclear localization and activation of NRF2, thereby demonstrating that NRF2 and EGFR are connected in a positive feedback loop in melanoma. In summary, our data show that the EGFR-positive melanoma phenotype is strongly supported by NRF2, thus revealing a novel maintenance mechanism for this clinically challenging melanoma subpopulation.

Deoxypodophyllotoxin Inhibits Cell Growth and Induces Apoptosis by Blocking EGFR and MET in Gefitinib-Resistant Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer.

As one of the major types of lung cancer, non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for the majority of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Treatments for NSCLC includes surgery, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy. Among the targeted therapies, resistance to inhibitors of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is common and remains a problem to be solved. MET (hepatocyte growth factor receptor) amplification is one of the major causes of EGFR-tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) resistance. Therefore, there exists a need to find new and more efficacious therapies. Deoxypodophyllotoxin (DPT) extracted from Anthriscus sylvestris roots exhibits various pharmacological activities including anti-inflammation and anti-cancer effects. In this study we sought to determine the anti-cancer effects of DPT on HCC827GR cells, which are resistant to gefitinib (EGFR-TKI) due to regulation of EGFR and MET and their related signaling pathways. To identify the direct binding of DPT to EGFR and MET, we performed pull-down, ATP-binding, and kinase assays. DPT exhibited competitive binding with ATP against the network kinases EGFR and MET and reduced their activities. Also, DPT suppressed the expression of p-EGFR and p-MET as well as their downstreat proteins p-ErbB3, p-AKT, and p-ERK. The treatment of HCC827GR cells with DPT induced high ROS generation that led to endoplasmic-reticulum stress. Accordingly, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and apoptosis by multi-caspase activation were observed. In conclusion, these results demonstrate the apoptotic effects of DPT on HCC827GR cells and signify the potential of DPT to serve as an adjuvant anti-cancer drug by simultaneously inhibiting EGFR and MET.

Abstract PR008: Tumor-cell-intrinsic transcriptional and epigenetic regulation of EGFR underlies the heterogeneity of immune infiltration and response to immunotherapy in pancreatic cancer

Abstract Resistance to immunotherapy is a major problem of current clinical care for cancer patients. While T cell abundance is essential for tumor responsiveness to immunotherapy, factors that dictate T cell infiltration in tumor microenvironments are not fully understood. To understand the tumor-cell-intrinsic factors underlying the heterogeneity of tumor immunity and sensitivity to immunotherapy, we established a new experimental system by generating a library of congenic pancreatic tumor cell clones from a genetic mouse model driven by mutant Kras and p53. These tumor cell clones robustly formed implanted tumors that recapitulated T-cell-inflamed and non-T-cell-inflamed tumor microenvironments, associated with distinct patterns of infiltration by T cells and myeloid cells. We found that the non-T-cell-inflamed phenotype was dominant over the T-cell-inflamed phenotype in the local tumor microenvironment. An integrated transcriptomic and epigenetic analysis revealed that tumor-cell-intrinsic expression of CXCL1, EPHA2, PTGS2, and USP22 as determinants of the non-T-cell-inflamed microenvironment, and ablation of tumor-cell-intrinsic CXCL1, EPHA2, PTGS2, or USP22 promoted T cell infiltration and sensitivity to a combination of chemotherapies, CD40 agonist, and checkpoint blockades. Furthermore, we performed an in vivo CRISPR-based genetic screen to identify tumor cell intrinsic epigenetic regulators of anti-tumor immunity and discovered novel therapeutic opportunities to improve the efficacy of currently developed immunotherapy for pancreatic cancer. Specifically, we identified lysine demethylase 3A (KDM3A) as a potent epigenetic regulator of immunotherapy response in PDA. Mechanistically, KDM3A acts through Krueppel-like factor 5 (KLF5) and SMAD family member 4 (SMAD4) to regulate the expression of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Ablation of KDM3A, KLF5, SMAD4, or EGFR in tumor cells altered the immune TME and sensitized tumors to combination immunotherapy, while treatment of established tumors with an EGFR inhibitor erlotinib prompted a dose-dependent increase in intratumoral T cells. This study defines an epigenetic-transcriptional mechanism by which tumor cells modulate their immune microenvironment and highlights the potential of EGFR inhibitors as immunotherapy sensitizers in PDA. Together, these results demonstrated that heterogeneity of tumor immune phenotypes is driven by tumor-cell-intrinsic factors, including epigenetic factors, that can be manipulated to influence the outcome of immunotherapies. Citation Format: Jinyang Li, Salina Yuan, Robert Norgard, Fangxue Yan, Andres Blanco, Ben Stanger. Tumor-cell-intrinsic transcriptional and epigenetic regulation of EGFR underlies the heterogeneity of immune infiltration and response to immunotherapy in pancreatic cancer [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR Virtual Special Conference on the Evolving Tumor Microenvironment in Cancer Progression: Mechanisms and Emerging Therapeutic Opportunities; in association with the Tumor Microenvironment (TME) Working Group; 2021 Jan 11-12. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2021;81(5 Suppl):Abstract nr PR008.

PLAGL2-EGFR-HIF-1/2α Signaling Loop Promotes HCC Progression and Erlotinib Insensitivity.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, hence a major public health threat. Pleomorphic adenoma gene like-2 (PLAGL2) has been reported to play a role in tumorigenesis. However, its precise function in HCC remains poorly understood. In this study, we demonstrated that PLAGL2 was up-regulated in HCC compared with that of adjacent nontumorous tissues and also correlated with overall survival times. We further showed that PLAGL2 promoted HCC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion both in vitro and in vivo. PLAGL2 expression was positively correlated with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) expression. Mechanistically, this study demonstrated that PLAGL2 functions as a transcriptional regulator of EGFR and promotes HCC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion through the EGFR-AKT pathway. Moreover, hypoxia was found to significantly induce high expression of PLAGL2, which promoted hypoxia inducible factor 1/2 alpha subunit (HIF1/2A) expression through EGFR. Therefore, this study demonstrated that a PLAGL2-EGFR-HIF1/2A signaling loop promotes HCC progression. More importantly, PLAGL2 expression reduced hepatoma cells' response to the anti-EGFR drug erlotinib. PLAGL2 knockdown enhanced the response to erlotinib. This study reveals the pivotal role of PLAGL2 in HCC cell proliferation, metastasis, and erlotinib insensitivity. This suggests that PLAGL2 can be a potential therapeutic target of HCC.

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) involvement in epithelial-derived cancers and its current antibody-based immunotherapies.

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a transmembrane glycoprotein that is part of the family of tyrosine kinase receptors. The binding of EGFR to its cognate ligands leads to its autophosphorylation and subsequent activation of the signal transduction pathways involved in regulating cellular proliferation, differentiation, and survival. Accordingly, this receptor carries out both redundant and restricted functions in the germline development of mammals and in the maintenance of various adult tissues. Correspondingly, the loss of EGFR regulation results in many human diseases, with the most notable cancer. This receptor is overexpressed and/or mutated in multiple epithelial-derived tumors, and associated with poor prognosis and survival in cancer patients. Here, we discuss in detail the role of EGFR in specific epithelial-derived cancer pathologies; these include lung cancer, colorectal cancer, and squamous cell carcinomas. The development of multiple anticancer agents against EGFR diminished the progression and metastasis of tumors. Some of the most versatile therapeutic anti-EGFR agents include the monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), demonstrating success in clinical settings when used in combination with cytotoxic treatments, such as chemotherapy and/or radiation. We thus discuss the development and application of two of the most notable therapeutic mAbs, cetuximab, and panitumumab, currently utilized in various EGFR-related epithelial cancers.

Quantitative analyses of EGFR localization and trafficking dynamics in the follicular epithelium.

To bridge the gap between qualitative and quantitative analyses of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in tissues, we generated an sfGFP-tagged EGF receptor (EGFR-sfGFP) in Drosophila The homozygous fly appears similar to wild type with EGFR expression and activation patterns that are consistent with previous reports in the ovary, early embryo, and imaginal discs. Using ELISA, we quantified an average of 1100, 6200 and 2500 receptors per follicle cell (FC) at stages 8/9, 10 and ≥11 of oogenesis, respectively. Interestingly, the spatial localization of the EGFR to the apical side of the FCs at early stages depended on the TGFα-like ligand Gurken. At later stages, EGFR localized to basolateral positions of the FCs. Finally, we followed the endosomal localization of EGFR in the FCs. The EGFR colocalized with the late endosome, but no significant colocalization of the receptor was found with the early endosome. The EGFR-sfGFP fly is an exciting new resource for studying cellular localization and regulation of EGFR in tissues.