Regular Housing Research Articles

Toxicological Assessment of Pesticide Exposure in Wistar Rats: An Acute and Sub-Acute Inhalation Study

Background: Pesticide ubiquity and extensive applications have attendant public health implications. This study examines the immediate and prolonged inhalation toxicity of various commonly used insecticides in male Wistar rats. Methods: 192 male Wistar rats were utilized and kept in regular housing. The study was carried out in three stages: a preliminary test, an acute test, and a sub-acute. Wistar rats, housed in an improvised chamber, were exposed to varying doses of insecticides in each phase to assess their toxicities to insecticides. For comparativeness, we withdrew 57 of the rats from exposure to ascertain possible recovery. The study included monitoring behavioral changes, recording mortality rates, and conducting necropsies to evaluate organ pathology. Dose-response relationships were analyzed to determine lethal doses (LD50) and potential sublethal effects. Results: Overall, we found a dose-related increase in the severity of the response, which potentially indicates an alteration of a specific biochemical process. The range-finding test assessed the effects of DD Force, Sniper, Industrial Camphor, Edible Camphor, Kerosene, and combined pesticides. It revealed significant physiological impacts followed by mortalities at specific dosage levels. Subsequent acute toxicity testing determined LC50 values for each insecticide. Rats showed a dose-dependent health deterioration following sub-acute exposure, particularly in the combined pesticide group, indicating synergistic toxicity. Conclusion: Exposure to the combined pesticide at high doses was associated with severe toxicities in the tested rats. This evidence suggests that commonly used pesticides could potentiate adverse health outcomes when results are extrapolated in humans.

No heaven but no longer hell? Tales of criminal victimization and shelter among irregular migrant men

Irregular migrants are legally excluded from formal employment, regular housing markets, and unemployment benefits, and in the Netherlands, they are also excluded from governmentally funded homeless shelters. While alternative sheltering arrangements have emerged for specific irregular migrants (e.g. minors, victims of human trafficking), unaccompanied adult men were typically still excluded from institutionalized shelter. In 2019, however, the national government launched a sheltering pilot for irregular migrants, which involves unaccompanied adult men in particular. Based on qualitative fieldwork in Rotterdam, and using Van Dijk and Steinmetz’s risk model as a theoretical lens, we argue that irregular status, interacting with other relevant factors such as social capital, co-determines the men’s criminal victimization risks, and fear of crime. In addition, we show how access to shelter changed the meaning and therefore the consequences of irregular status, resulting in both ‘de-marginalization’ and ‘re-marginalization’: victimization risks were generally reported to be lower in the shelter than in the streets, but sheltering also introduced new risks, which were mostly attributed to the co-presence of other sheltered groups, especially marginalized European Union (EU) citizens with a stronger immigration status. Paying attention to immigration statuses, and how they are socially constructed, thus helps to shed light on contemporary criminal victimization risks.

The Impacts of Subjective Health and Life Expenses on Quality of Life for Korean Elderly People

The proportion of elderly individuals has been increasing in Korea. Under this condition, it is essential to understand the behavioral characteristics of elderly individuals to build adequate policies. The purpose of this research was to investigate the determinants of quality of life for Korean senior citizens, specifically, their subjective health and their regular medical, housing, and clothing expenditures. Data were collected from a Korean senior citizen research panel, and the study period was 2018–2020. Multiple linear panel regression analyses were conducted for the analysis of panel data, which includes ordinary least squares, random effects, and fixed effects. In the results, quality of life for older Korean adults was positively affected by subjective health and clothing expenditures. However, quality of life was negatively influenced by medical and housing spending. The results of this work could offer information for building policies for better senior welfare.

Factors associated with prematurity in Pinar del Río year 2023

Introduction. Premature birth constitutes a great challenge for Perinatal Medicine; knowing the factors involved contributes to its prevention.Aim. Characterize the risk factors related to prematurity in Pinar del Río.Methods. A descriptive cross-sectional investigation was carried out on 147 preterm newborns, analysis of documents and birth databases was carried out, presentation of results in tables and map. The statistical analysis was carried out using the SPSS program, summary measures were used for quantitative and qualitative variables.Results. The prematurity rate was 7.6%, Los Palacios, Minas de Matahambre and San Luis present the highest risk, 82.5% of the mothers were between 20 and 35 years old, 60.2% with good economic income, 19.4% They had a history of spontaneous abortions, 5.8% used tobacco, 63.0% had vaginal or urinary infections, 52.4% threatened preterm birth. There was a statistical association between black skin color, history of spontaneous abortion, hypertensive disorders, alcohol and tobacco consumption, poor housing conditions and student with IUGR. The workers, regular housing conditions, history of spontaneous abortion with the threat of preterm birth.Conclusions. Prematurity was high, three municipalities were at highest risk, sociodemographic factors, history of chronic diseases and other health damage, obstetric history, factors related to the current pregnancy were represented in prematurity. Severe maternal conditions and IUGR with altered Doppler were among the most associated triggering events.

Contradictions Within the Swedish Welfare System: Social Services’ Homelessness Strategies Under Housing Inequality

Sweden has seen a rise in homelessness alongside its strained housing market. References are increasingly being made to structural problems with housing provision, rather than individual issues. Housing has been organized through the local social services, which are responsible for supporting homeless people. With a foundation in housing studies, this article analyzes the Swedish social services’ challenges and actions in a time in which affordable housing is in shortage, and housing inequality a reality, through the lens of social services. The focus is on the intersection between the regular housing market and housing provision (primary welfare system), the social services needs‐tested support (secondary welfare system), and the non‐profit and for‐profit organizations (tertiary welfare system), with emphasis on the first two. The article is based on interviews with people working for the City of Malmö and illustrates how the housing shortage problem is moved around within the welfare system whilst also showing that social services’ support for homeless individuals appears insufficient. Social services act as a “first line” gatekeeper for those who have been excluded from the regular housing market. Moreover, recently implemented restrictions aim to make sure that the social services do not act as a “housing agency,” resulting in further exclusion from the housing market. The article highlights how the policies of the two welfare systems interact with and counteract each other and finally illustrates how homeless individuals fall between them. It highlights the need to link housing and homelessness in both research and practice to gain a deeper understanding of the complexities of housing markets and how homelessness is sustained.

‘Finding housing was an illness’: refugees’ sense of continued displacement in Belgium

Housing is a key empirical entry point into the lifeworlds of refugees in host societies. To date, scholarly work has mainly focused on the first phase of arrival, that of asylum accommodation. Here I extend the scope of post-arrival housing research by looking into the housing trajectories of refugees after they have received protection status. This contribution reveals their lived experiences on the regular housing market, which exposes them to contingency, inaccessibility and exclusion. Based on interviews with 20 households who received refugee status in Belgium after 2015, the article puts the urban studies notion of displacement into dialogue with the notion of precariousness in housing studies, arguing that refugees develop a sense of continued displacement. The analysis captures how post-arrival housing trajectories make refugees relive the exclusionary nature of forced displacement, as they not only struggle to secure housing but are also unable to once more find home and fixity. The article highlights the importance of considering refugees’ housing experiences as vehicles to further understand already existing housing difficulties in host societies.

Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) in Makkah, Saudi Arabia: A Population-Based Seroprevalence Study.

The Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a common cause of viral hepatitis worldwide. Little is known about the seroprevalence of HEV in the general population of Saudi Arabia. A community-based cross-sectional HEV seroprevalence study was conducted in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Anti-HEV IgG antibodies were detected in sera using an in-house ELISA. The frequency of HEV sageerology and its correlation with demographic, and environmental factors were evaluated. Enrollment consisted of 1329 individuals, ages ranged from 8 to 88 years, the mean age was 30.17 years, the median age was 28yrs, and the male: female ratio was 1.15. The overall seroprevalence was 23.8% (316/1329). Males had significantly higher seroprevalence than females (66.1 vs. 33.9%; p < 0.001). Seroprevalence had significant correlations with age, occupation, and lack of regular water supply and housing conditions. This is the first HEV community-based seroprevalence study from Saudi Arabia. Results show that the HEV is endemic in Makkah and affects all age groups and occupations. HEV affects more males than females and those living in crowded accommodations without a regular supply of water. Further studies are required across all regions of Saudi Arabia to determine the country's seroprevalence of active or past infection using tests for HEV IgG, HEV IgM antibodies and/or HEV RNA and underlying determinants of transmission.

Abstract 14182: A Missense Mutation in Ryanodine Receptor 2 Leads to Structural Remodeling of the Heart and Cardiac Arrhythmia in a Rabbit Model

Ryanodine receptor 2 (RyR2) is the Ca 2+ release channel of sarcoplasmic reticulum that provides the majority of Ca 2+ necessary for contractions of the heart. RyR2 mutations are linked to catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT), an inherited arrhythmogenic disorder with normal heart structure. There are reports suggesting that RyR2 mutations can also lead to structural heart disease, notably arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC); however, additional research is required to support this association. We generated a rabbit model carrying the missense mutation RyR2-V2475F, linked to CPVT in humans. Heterozygous (V2475F +/- ) rabbits show a CPVT-like syndrome and display arrhythmia under pharmacological stress. Homozygotes (V2475F +/+ ) show a stronger phenotype, with 37% of the animals (13/35) experiencing sudden death at 22.5±3.8 weeks old during regular housing. Remarkably, gross examination of V2475F +/+ hearts showed significant structural remodeling, characterized by fibrous infiltrations and thinning of the right ventricle with or without left ventricle involvement. This phenotype is reminiscent of ARVC. Lead II ECG obtained in conscious rabbits by telemetry showed that V2475F +/+ animals have significant bradycardia (144.6±11.1 bpm) with prolonged QT interval (QTc: 180.4±8.2 ms, n=6) compared to WT (HR: 224.9±4.2 bpm, p=0.04; QTc: 157.4±5.3 ms, p=0.02, n=5). After subcutaneous injection of 0.5 mg/kg of isoproterenol, WT rabbits showed the expected positive chronotropic response (HR, 367±10 bpm, n=3) while V2475F +/+ animals developed bouts of ventricular tachycardia. Mild emotional stress applied by transporting the animal around the laboratory, also induced ventricular arrhythmia in 100% (5/5) V2475F +/+ rabbits, while WT littermates were unaffected. RyR2-V2475F expressed in a rabbit model triggers remarkably different phenotypes based on the zygosity of the animals, ranging from a purely arrhythmogenic syndrome (CPVT) in V2475F +/- animals to severe structural disease compatible with ARVC in V2475F +/+ rabbits. The RyR2-V2475F rabbit model is therefore an excellent model to dissect the intersection of arrhythmic and structural phenotypes due to RyR2 dysfunction.

Taming Airbnb Locally: Analysing Regulations in Amsterdam, Berlin and London

AbstractEuropean cities have responded differently to the growing number of short‐term rentals (such as Airbnb) and proposed a variety of regulations, although little is known about their efficiency. This paper contributes to filling the gap by analyzing both policy documents and spatial distributions of Airbnb listings between 2015 and 2020 using Amsterdam, Berlin, and London as case studies. We also compare the results with those of nine other European capitals. Our results show that cities follow highly individualized approaches. According to the strictness of each regulation, we see different intensities in the growth (and drop) of Airbnb listings, the share of multi‐hosts, and the share of apartments withdrawn from the regular housing market. There is also a spatial dispersion of listings from the center to the periphery. Our numbers insinuate that dynamically changing regulations force hosts to adapt continuously–which tames an uncontrolled proliferation, but more research is necessary.

Analysis of Land Use Changes and Land Value Zones Due to Phase 1 Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) Development in Menteng District, Central Jakarta

The high demand for land in the area around the MRT station causes changes in land prices that tend to increase. These conditions can be the cause of changes in land use. This study used high-resolution images in 2021 and land use maps in 2014 and 2021. The data is used to analyze land-use changes. Meanwhile, the analysis of land value changes uses the 2014 land value zone map and the 2021 land value zone map obtained from the results of a field survey using the mass land valuation method. From these results, an analysis of the effect of changes in land use was carried out on changes in land value in Menteng District as a result of the construction of mass rapid transit phase 1. The results showed that there was a change in land use. The total area of ​​land change was 18.604 hectares or 2.879%. The details of the changes are trade increased by 1.362%, settlements decreased by 1.938%, hotels increased by 0.071%, lakes increased by 0.114%, vacant land decreased by 0.006%, parks increased by 0.368%, PT regularly increased by 0.485%, sports facilities decreased by 0.368% and government offices decreased by 0.088%. The highest price increase was Rp110,218,903/m2 because there was a change in land use from regular housing to trading areas. The largest increase in land value seen from the dominant land use characteristics was in commercial or trade areas, which was 187%, with an average increase in value of Rp. 76,170,137/m2.

Quantifying the intersection of disability and homelessness in Massachusetts public schools in 2018-2019.

Homelessness has a major impact on the educational and health trajectories of children. Youth with disabilities may be especially vulnerable to experiencing homelessness, but little epidemiological work has been done to characterize dual disparity. Our goal was to describe the relationship between homelessness and disability among students (age 3-21) receiving public education in Massachusetts in 2018-2019. We evaluated the proportion of students with and without disabilities experiencing homelessness by county and school district. We used publicly available data from the United States and Massachusetts Department's of Education. These data used the McKinney Vento Homelessness Assistance Act definition of homelessness which is a lack of fixed, adequate, and regular housing, and disability was determined by the presence of an individualized education program or individualized family service plan. We calculated percentages of students with and without disabilities experiencing homelessness at the state, county, and district level and calculated and mapped risk of homelessness comparing students and without disability. We also determined the occurrence of disability among those experiencing homelessness. In Massachusetts public schools, 3.5% of students with disabilities experienced homelessness compared with 2.4% of students without disabilities (relative risk 1.50, 95% CI: 1.47, 1.53). A greater proportion of students with disabilities experienced homelessness compared with students without disabilities in all counties. In sum, 24.8% of students experiencing homelessness had a reported disability. In Massachusetts public schools, a greater proportion of students with disabilities experience homelessness compared with students without disabilities, and disability is common among students experiencing homelessness. We hypothesize potential mechanisms, such as the financial cost of disability, that may lead to this finding. Findings support the need for additional funding and interventions for school districts and communities to better serve vulnerable students with disabilities experiencing homelessness.

Independent Supported Housing for Non-homeless People With Serious Mental Illness: A Pragmatic Randomized Controlled Trial

BackgroundIndependent supported housing (ISH)—services to support independent housing are recommended by current guidelines. However, there is little evidence of ISH models for non-homeless people with severe mental illness (SMI). The aim of this study was to examine the effectiveness of ISH by comparing the clinical outcomes of a newly implemented ISH service with regular housing and support services.MethodsA total of 58 adults with a broad spectrum of mental disorders experiencing housing problems were randomly assigned to either the intervention group (IG) with the possibility to use the ISH service in Zurich providing targeted, individual and flexible support for housing problems or to the control group (CG) with regular housing and support services currently available (trial registration at ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03815604).ResultsAfter 12 months, almost all participants of the IG were able to live independently and need for inpatient treatment could be significantly reduced. Service utilization varied between 2 and 79 h. In the CG, 70% of the participants wanted to join a waiting list for the ISH service. The results indicated that IHS was comparable to regular housing and support services in terms of social inclusion and other social and clinical outcomes such as quality of life, capabilities, needs, mental state and functioning (p's > 0.05). The costs of service utilization were on average 115 Swiss Francs (about 124 USD) per participant per month.ConclusionsISH is an effective service in housing rehabilitation in terms of social and clinical outcomes and costs. ISH is strongly preferred by service users. In line with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, access to ISH services for non-homeless people with SMI should be improved.Clinical Trial RegistrationClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT03815604, December 04, 2019.

The image of the foreign squatter: British and Irish youths in the Dutch city of Leiden during the 1990s

AbstractBased on a systematic analysis of local mainstream and activist media, this article reconstructs conflicts over the framing of British and Irish squatters in Leiden during the 1990s. During this decade, several hundreds of English-speaking youths travelled to Leiden and surrounding villages to work as seasonal labourers. Often lacking access to regular housing, many of them resorted to squatting houses and as a result got involved in local urban development conflicts. While proprietors, neighbours, aldermen and the police all tried to gain support via the media, squatters also contacted media outlets to counter bad press. This article reconstructs the ensuing struggle over the image of the foreign squatter in Leiden's local media during the 1990s, and analyses the dynamics between the various groups that attempted to influence the squatters’ framing.

Refugees’ Transition from Welfare to Work: A Quasi-Experimental Approach of the Impact of the Neighbourhood Context

AbstractThis study analyses the impact of the neighbourhood context on the likelihood that refugees move from social assistance to paid employment. It makes use of Dutch policy that resulted in an exogenous placement of refugees in their first regular housing. This natural quasi-experiment allows us to estimate intent-to-treat effects of initial neighbourhood characteristics on the likelihood of transitioning from welfare to work. We consider the impact of the employment share and the median level of income among natives and co-ethnics, using Dutch longitudinal administrative data and discrete time event-history modelling. Our findings indicate that refugees are more likely to enter the labour market when the neighbourhood’s employment share among natives is higher. A similar effect for employment among co-ethnics is not found. There is also no evidence that the placement of refugees in an area with a higher median income among co-ethnics or natives facilitates the transition from welfare to work.

A Mixed-Methods Approach for Evaluating the Relationship between Sustainable Urban Renewal Projects and Environmental Perception and Action in Chengdu

This article draws from a mixed-methods approach to explore the relationship between sustainable urban renewal projects and the way Chinese urban residents perceive and act upon the environment. We examine sustainable urban renewal projects in the city of Chengdu, called Ecological Housing Estate projects. By collaborating with nongovernmental organizations and local officials, we used a two-step process, including collecting freelists and semi-structured interviews, to design a survey instrument used to interview 245 households in three Ecological Housing Estates and four Regular Housing Estates in Chengdu. Our findings demonstrate how recycling practices are reinforced by the Ecological Housing Estate projects but also explain why the rainwater collection aspect of the projects are not well matched with existing household water conservation practices. We argue that integrating mixed-methods research into the design of a sustainable urban renewal project will help mitigate the potential that projects will develop similar kinds of urban sustainable fixes.

A Kiosk Station for the Assessment of Multiple Cognitive Domains and Cognitive Enrichment of Monkeys.

Nonhuman primates (NHP’s) are self-motivated to perform cognitive tasks on touchscreens in their animal housing setting. To leverage this ability, fully integrated hardware and software solutions are needed that work within housing and husbandry routines while also spanning cognitive task constructs of the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC). Here, we detail such an integrated robust hardware and software solution for running cognitive tasks in cage-housed NHP’s with a cage-mounted Kiosk Station (KS-1). KS-1 consists of a frame for mounting flexibly on housing cages, a touchscreen animal interface with mounts for receptables, reward pumps, and cameras, and a compact computer cabinet with an interface for controlling behavior. Behavioral control is achieved with a Unity3D program that is virtual-reality capable, allowing semi-naturalistic visual tasks to assess multiple cognitive domains.KS-1 is fully integrated into the regular housing routines of monkeys. A single person can operate multiple KS-1’s. Monkeys engage with KS-1 at high motivation and cognitive performance levels at high intra-individual consistency. KS-1 is optimized for flexible mounting onto standard apartment cage systems and provides a new design variation complementing existing cage-mounted touchscreen systems. KS-1 has a robust animal interface with options for gaze/reach monitoring. It has an integrated user interface for controlling multiple cognitive tasks using a common naturalistic object space designed to enhance task engagement. All custom KS-1 components are open-sourced.In summary, KS-1 is a versatile new tool for cognitive profiling and cognitive enrichment of cage-housed monkeys. It reliably measures multiple cognitive domains which promises to advance our understanding of animal cognition, inter-individual differences, and underlying neurobiology in refined, ethologically meaningful behavioral foraging contexts.

Measuring the housing sector’s contribution to GDP in emerging market countries

PurposeThis paper aims to document the economic importance of the housing sector, as measured by its contribution to gross domestic product (GDP), which is not fully recognized. In response to the joint economic and health crises caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, there is an opportunity for emerging market countries to develop and implement inclusive housing strategies that stimulate the economy and improve community health outcomes. However, so far housing does not feature prominently in the recovery plans of many emerging market countries.Design/methodology/approachThis paper uses national account data and informal housing estimates for 11 emerging market economies to estimate the contribution of housing investments and housing services to the GDP of these countries.FindingsThis paper finds that the combined contribution of housing investments and housing services represents between 6.9% and 18.5% of GDP, averaging 13.1% in the countries with information about both. This puts the housing sector roughly on par with other key sectors such as manufacturing. In addition, if the informal housing sector is undercounted in the official national account figures used in this analysis by 50% or 100%, for example, then the true averages of housing investments and housing services’ contribution to GDP would increase to 14.3% or 16.1% of GDP, respectively.Research limitations/implicationsFurther efforts to improve data collection about housing investments and consumption, particularly imputed rent for owner occupiers and informal activity require national government to conduct regular household and housing surveys. Researcher can help make these surveys more robust and leverage new data sources such as scraped housing price and rent data to complement traditional surveys. Better data are needed in order to capture housing contribution to the economy.Practical implicationsThe size of the housing sector and its impact in terms of employment and community resilience indicate the potential of inclusive housing investments to both serve short-term economic stimulus and increase long-term community resilience.Originality/valueThe role of housing in the economy is often limited to housing investment, despite the importance of housing services and well-documented methodologies to include them. This analysis highlights the importance of housing to the economy of emerging market countries (in addition to all the non-GDP related impact of housing on welfare) and indicate data limitation that need to be addressed to further strengthen the case for focusing on housing as part of economic recovery plans.

Affordable Housing for Young Adults in Latvia

Abstract The topic is related to the need for housing as a social need for every member of society and its inaccessibility, mainly due to lack of finance. Housing affordability is a concept that indicates whether households are able to purchase or rent a home, maintain it and cover other non-housing expenses. Housing is one of the most important basic human values, but in the housing market, young households, whose incomes tend to be lower and more volatile, often face difficulties in finding affordable housing. For this reason, young adults are often considered high-risk tenants. Uncertainty in the rental market, restrictions on buying a home, and financial difficulties have a significant impact on young people’s ability to buy or rent their own home and often lead to short-term renting and regular housing changes. Various events that have a significant impact on the national economy, e.g., the financial crisis, have affected all the population in different countries over time, but it is believed that these events have had the most significant impact on young people’s living standards and on the level of housing affordability for youth. Therefore, it has been decided to evaluate the economic situation in the European Union, to analyse the socio-economic indicators for young people aged 20 to 34 years, and to study the concept of housing affordability both in Latvia and in the EU. The goal of the research is to analyse the possibilities of increasing the housing affordability for youth.

Revisión de la exención por reinversión en vivienda habitual en el IRPF: la subrogación en una hipoteca se computa como importe reinvertido

The regular housing reinvestment exemption constitutes a tax benefit applicable to property gains from the acquisition or rehabilitation of a new home in the cases provided for in the IRPF. The Supreme Court's October 2020 judgment provides a criterion that welcomes the concept of economic reinvestment to be applied in these cases. Consequently, the surrogacy of the taxpayer in the mortgage which the acquired home was financed constitutes an amount that must be calculated for the purposes of the exemption. This doctrine affects the social function of housing and the tax protection of the constitutional right of access to decent and adequate housing.

The local political economy of short-term rentals in Salzburg – manifestations of an entrepreneurial city?

Short-term rentals (STRs) and Airbnb as the most prominent representative are increasingly being seen critical as they withdraw housing resources from the housing market in cities that are already expensive and touristy. In some cities, urban tourism encounters increasing criticism, in some cases there is hostility against tourists. Various media and scientific disciplines discuss these developments under the term overtourism. The pressure on political decision-makers to regulate tourism and STRs in particular is increasing. The City of Salzburg with over three million overnight stays per year is exemplary for this. Airbnb’s withdrawal of housing concentrates on inner city and touristic districts and leads to controversies in the already tense housing market. Against this background, the study uses a mixed methods approach to examine the stakeholder structure of Airbnb hosts in the City of Salzburg. The results of a spatial analysis of the STRs in Salzburg and the evaluation of the related qualitative interviews show the special stakeholder structure among Airbnb hosts. Both, “private sharers” and professional hosts, are locals from Salzburg and the latter have well established networks. At the same time, the Airbnb phenomenon is part of a trend towards entrepreneurial urban development. Airbnb creates new rent gaps for landlords. The substitution of regular housing for tourist offers opens up a new source of income for various agents, which does not replace conventional hotel operations, but rather supplements them. The airbnb phenomenon in Salzburg fits into a larger context of effects from earlier decisions on housing and land policies, which overall lead to an increase in segregation and a shortage of affordable housing.