Northern European Regions Research Articles

Is dietary intake of folate too low?

In today’s Lancet, Jane Durga and colleagues1 report a favourable effect of folic acid supplementation on cognitive decline in adults aged 50–70 years. By design, the trial was focused on people whose folate status was inadequate, as shown by a raised homocysteine concentration in the absence of other disorders or diseases that could account for the raised concentration (eg, vitamin B12 deficiency, renal disease). The trial was well designed and unique in its approach of targeting individuals who might benefit from folate supplementation. But how well do the folate intakes of these highly selected trial participants correspond to intakes in more representative samples of the population? And, why might folate intake be so low in human populations? Dietary intakes of folate in the trial participants were far lower than the US recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of 400 μg a day,2 and also lower than the RDA for the Netherlands (300 μg a day), but are in line with the recommended amount of 200 μg a day in Japan and Australia. Even though the participants had low dietary intakes of folate, most did not have subnormal serum folate or erythrocyte concentrations. This fact implies that the participants were not even in the first stage of negative nutrient balance,3 although current criteria for determining inadequate folate status are crude.4 Raised baseline concentrations of homocysteine, together with substantial improvement in biochemical measures of folate and homocysteine and in cognitive function after folic acid treatment, suggest that previous dietary intakes might have been inadequate. The RDA defines an intake that is sufficient to meet daily nutrient requirements of most individuals (97·5%) of the same age group. These levels are approximate, especially for folate, because 150 different forms of folate exist, and chemical analysis of their composition in food has variable accuracy. Additionally, folate is highly susceptible to oxidative destruction. 50–95% of folate content in food is estimated to be lost in storage, preparation, or manufacturing processes.5 Taking into consideration the many problems with accurate measurement of folate intake, population comparisons suggest that intakes vary greatly according to differences in dietary behaviours across different regions, ethnic groups, age, and socioeconomic circumstances. The richest natural food sources of folate include yeast, organ meats (eg, liver, kidney, tongue), green leafy vegetables (eg, spinach, collard greens), legumes, beans, and some fruits. The highest reported intakes of folate occur in populations with the highest consumption of vegetables, such as in countries in which the diet is similar to the Mediterranean diet.6 For example, the mean intake of dietary folate was 559 μg a day in Greece in people who followed the traditional Cretan diet.7 Intakes in the southern regions of Europe (France, Spain, and Portugal) are about 300–400 μg a day, and 200 μg a day in northern European regions (Ireland and Sweden).6 Intakes are also high in countries that fortify grain with folic acid, such as the USA and Canada. Before fortifi cation of grain was introduced, the mean folate intake in the USA was estimated to be 275 μg a day, and 26% of the population had inadequate folate status according to serum concentrations.8 After the introduction of fortifi cation, fewer than 1% of the US population had an inadequate serum folate status.9 In a US study of elderly people, before the introduction of folic acid fortifi cation, homocysteine concentrations were raised in individuals with folate intakes of up to 280 μg a day. As indicated above, many individuals within populations have folate intakes that might be suboptimum for physiological function.10 Our knowledge about the physiological importance of homocysteine is limited, as is our defi nition of inadequate folate status. To make more informed dietary recommendations for optimum folate intake, we need randomised trials that take the approach of the FACIT trial.1 In particular, future trials should specify inclusion and exclusion criteria that target individuals at various stages of nutrient balance. They should also include comprehensive monitoring of biochemical concentrations of folate and folate metabolites in addition to monitoring of system function, such as cognitive function.

Effect of olive oils on biomarkers of oxidative DNA stress in Northern and Southern Europeans

High consumption of olive oil in the Mediterranean diet has been suggested to protect DNA against oxidative damage and to reduce cancer incidence. We investigated the impact of the phenolic compounds in olive oil, and the oil proper, on DNA and RNA oxidation in North, Central, and South European populations. In a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, controlled crossover intervention trial, the effect of olive oil phenolic content on urinary oxidation products of guanine (8-oxo-guanine, 8-oxo-guanosine and 8-oxo-deoxyguanosine) was investigated. Twenty-five milliliters of three olive oils with low, medium, and high phenolic content were administered to healthy males (n=182) daily for 3 wk. At study baseline the urinary excretion of 8-oxo-guanosine (RNA oxidation) and 8-oxo-deoxyguanosine (DNA oxidation) was higher in the Northern regions of Europe compared with Central and Southern European regions (P=0.035). Urinary excretion of the 8 hydroxylated forms of guanine, guanosine, deoxyguanosine and their nonoxidized forms were not different when comparing olive oils with low, medium, and high phenolic content given for 2 wk. Testing the effect of oil from urinary 8-oxo-deoxyguanosine changes from baseline to post-treatment showed a reduction of DNA oxidation by 13% (P=0.008). These findings support the idea that ingestion of olive oil is beneficial and can reduce the rate of oxidation of DNA. This effect is not due to the phenolic content in the olive oil. The higher DNA and RNA oxidation in Northern European regions compared with that in Central and Southern regions supports the contention that olive oil consumption may explain some of the North-South differences in cancer incidences in Europe.

Implications of Climate-enforced Temperature Increases on Freshwater Pico- and Nanoplankton Populations Studied in Artificial Ponds During 16 Months

Global warming scenarios foresee increases in air temperatures of 3–5 °C in Northern European regions within the next 70 years. To evaluate the potential effects of global warming on shallow eutrophic lakes, a flow-through experiment combining three temperature scenarios and two nutrient levels was conducted in 24 outdoor mesocosms. Eight mesocosms were unheated and acted as controls, while sixteen were heated – eight according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) climate scenario A2 down-scaled to regional level (2.5–4.4 °C, depending on season) and eight according to scenario A2+ with an additional 50% temperature increase. Half of the mesocosms were enriched with nitrogen and phosphorus to simulate increased runoff from terrestrial sources due to the increased precipitation predicted by the A2 scenario. The other half were un-enriched and received only natural nutrient input from the groundwater that fed all the mesocosms. The abundance and development pattern of the microbial communities within the mesocosms were tracked during a 16-month period. Generally, the results showed that the abundances of picoalgae, bacteria and heterotrophic nanoflagellates changed in a similar manner over time; abundances being lower in winter than in summer. Warming in itself had no effect on abundance, albeit it significantly modified the positive effect of the nutrients. Only at ambient temperatures did the whole microbial assemblage respond positively to nutrients. In the A2 scenario, only picoalgae responded to nutrients, while in the A2+ scenario all but the heterotrophic nanoflagellates showed a response. Elevated winter temperatures seemed not to be more important for the microbial assemblage than elevated summer temperatures. Our results demonstrate that the direct effects of warming were far less important than the nutrient effect. The results furthermore reveal that warming and nutrients in combination set off complex interactions. In consequence, global warming may possibly have pronounced effects on aquatic ecosystems if accompanied by increased nutrient loading.

Godfrey Hewitt — Recipient of 2005 Molecular Ecology Prize

Godfrey Hewitt — Recipient of 2005 Molecular Ecology Prize

From digital divide to digital inequality: the global perspective

This paper aims at comparing patterns of digital divide on the global scale. The question of whether the global trend of digital divide has widened or narrowed is discussed in this study. Moreover, this paper examines effects of geographical region, developmental level, social inequality, and global linkage of economy on the penetration of Internet usage. Data is collected and compared from sources of the World Bank and ITU. The results suggest the global digital divide has persisted. A dual development has been found in an overtime comparison. Developed and rapidly developing regions have shown a narrowing gap of Internet penetration toward the Northern European region in the past few years. The other developing and the least developed regions, in contrast, have verified the stratified model and revealed persisting divides over time compared to the developed regions. An overall high digital Gini coefficient worldwide indicates global inequality of Internet penetration is phenomenal.

Predicting Distribution and Density of European Badger (Meles Meles) Setts in Denmark

Predictive models of the spatial distribution and abundance of species based on habitat characteristics are finding increasing use in management and conservation. The European badger attracts interest as a model species both for conservation reasons and because of the important role the species is playing in understanding carnivore sociality. We developed a statistical habitat model based on presence/absence data on badger setts. To maximise the utility of the model in management, we limited the choice of model variables to those that had a clear basis in badger ecology and that could be obtained on a nation-wide digital format. We extrapolated the habitat model to a region in Denmark and developed a threshold-independent sett distribution algorithm to estimate sett densities. The habitat model was simpler than previously published models of badger sett habitat selection, but nevertheless had a predictive ability in excess of 80% judged against independent data. The sett distribution algorithm was able to simultaneously reproduce several observed patterns of sett density and distribution over the probability gradient. It thus represents a significant improvement over threshold-dependent methods used to discriminate between suitable and unsuitable habitat predicted by presence/absence regression models. Our approach demonstrates that a model of badger sett habitat suitability with high predictive power can be obtained using easily accessible map-variables and presence/absence data. This is a prerequisite for using habitat models as predictive tools over large areas. The use of a simple sett distribution algorithm circumvents the common problem of subjectively fixing a threshold to discriminate between suitable and unsuitable habitat. In conjunction the models presented here constitute an important contribution to the management of the badger in Denmark and, upon further validation, possibly to similar regions in Northern Europe.

A late Eemian aridity pulse in central Europe during the last glacial inception

Investigating the processes that led to the end of the last interglacial period is relevant for understanding how our ongoing interglacial will end, which has been a matter of much debate (see, for example, refs 1, 2). A recent ice core from Greenland demonstrates climate cooling from 122,000 years ago driven by orbitally controlled insolation, with glacial inception at 118,000 years ago. Here we present an annually resolved, layer-counted record of varve thickness, quartz grain size and pollen assemblages from a maar lake in the Eifel (Germany), which documents a late Eemian aridity pulse lasting 468 years with dust storms, aridity, bushfire and a decline of thermophilous trees at the time of glacial inception. We interpret the decrease in both precipitation and temperature as an indication of a close link of this extreme climate event to a sudden southward shift of the position of the North Atlantic drift, the ocean current that brings warm surface waters to the northern European region. The late Eemian aridity pulse occurred at a 65 degrees N July insolation of 416 W m(-2), close to today's value of 428 W m(-2) (ref. 9), and may therefore be relevant for the interpretation of present-day climate variability.

Vitamin D and calcium supplementation prevents severe falls in elderly community-dwelling women: a pragmatic population-based 3-year intervention study

We evaluated the effect of two programs for the prevention of falls leading to acute hospital admission in a population of elderly community-dwelling Danish residents. This was a factorial, pragmatic, intervention study. We included 9605 community-dwelling city residents aged 66+ years. We offered a prevention program consisting of a daily supplement of 1000 mg of elemental calcium as calcium carbonate and 400 IU (10 microg) of vitamin-D3 to a total of 4957 participants. The remaining 5063 participants were offered home safety inspection with dietary and health advice, or no intervention. The Calcium and Vitamin D program was followed by 50.3% and the Environmental and Health Program by 46.4%. According to a multivariate analysis including age, marital status and intervention program, female residents who followed the Calcium and Vitamin D Program had a 12% risk reduction in severe falls (RR 0.88; 95% CI 0.79-0.98; p < 0.05; NNT 9). The present study supports the hypothesis that vitamin D and calcium supplementation prevent falls leading to acute hospitalization in community-dwelling elderly females in a northern European region known to be deficient in vitamin D.

Environment and Harvest Time Affects the Combustion Qualities of Miscanthus Genotypes

Miscanthus spp. are high‐yielding perennial C4 grasses, native to Asia, that are being investigated in Europe as potential biofuels. Production of economically viable solid biofuel must combine high biomass yields with good combustion qualities. Good biomass combustion quality depends on minimizing moisture, ash, K, chloride, N, and S. To this end, field trials at five sites in Europe from Sweden to Portugal were planted with 15 different genotypes including M. × giganteus, M. sacchariflorus, M. sinensis, and newly bred M. sinensis hybrids. Yield and combustion quality at an autumn and a late winter/early spring harvest were determined in the third year after planting when the stands had reached maturity. As expected, delaying the harvest by three to four months improved the combustion quality of all genotypes by reducing ash (from 40 to 25 g kg−1 dry matter), K (from 9 to 4 g kg−1 dry matter), chloride (from 4 to 1 g kg−1 dry matter), N (from 5 to 4 g kg−1 dry matter), and moisture (from 564 to 291 g kg−1 fresh matter). However, the delayed harvest also decreased mean biomass yields from 17 to 14 t ha−1. There is a strong interaction among yield, quality, and site growing conditions. Results show that in northern regions of Europe, M. sinensis hybrids can be recommended for high yields (yielding up to 25 t ha−1), but M. sinensis (nonhybrid) genotypes have higher combustion qualities. In mid‐ and south Europe, M. × giganteus (yielding up to 38 t ha−1) or specific high‐yielding M. sinensis hybrids (yielding up to 41 t ha−1) are more suitable for biofuel production.

Hydroxylated PCBs and other chlorinated phenolic compounds in lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) blood plasma from the Great Lakes region.

Recently, there has been an increase in studies focusing on an emerging class of organic contaminants, hydroxylated PCBs (OH-PCBs) and chlorinated phenolic compounds (CPCs) in the environment, particularly in northern regions of Europe and Canada. Since information for fish from the Great Lakes are scarce, we determined the blood plasma concentrations of OH-PCB congeners, pentachlorophenol (PCP), 2,3,4,5-tetrachlorophenol (TCP), and 4-hydroxyheptachlorostyrene (4-OH-HpCS) for lake trout (Savelinus namaycush) collected from two of the Great Lakes, Lake Ontario and Lake Superior, and two regional lakes, Lake Champlain and Lake Opeongo. PCP was the dominant CPC in lake trout (105-658 pg/g of plasma). Detectable concentrations of 2,3,4,5-TCP and 4-OH-HpCS were found in all lake trout (2.6-101 and 0.4-27 pg/g, respectively). Highest concentrations were found in trout from Lake Ontario and Lake Superior. Sixteen OH-PCBs were quantified, with 4-OH-CB187 having the highest concentration in all samples (10-173 pg/g of plasma). Unexpectedly, highly chlorinated OH-PCBs such as 4'-OH-CB199 (mean 21.4 and 74.4 pg/g), 4,4'-diOH-CB202 (18.3 and 27.7 pg/g), and 4'-OH-CB208 (24.5 and 34.7 pg/g) were found in lake trout from Lake Ontario and Lake Superior, respectively. Future studies to delineate the sources and impacts of CPCs in the Great Lakes catchment are needed.

Chironomid (Diptera: Chironomidae) communities in six European glacier‐fed streams

1. A study on glacial stream ecosystems was carried out in six regions across Europe, from Svalbard to the French Pyrenees. The main aim was to test the validity of the conceptual model of Milner &amp; Petts (1994) with regard to the zonation of chironomids of glacier‐fed rivers along altitudinal and latitudinal gradient.2. Channel stability varied considerably, both on the latitudinal and altitudinal scale, being lowest in the northern regions (Svalbard, Iceland and Norway) and the Swiss Alps. Water temperature at the upstream sites was always &lt;2 °C.3. There was a prominent difference in taxonomic richness between the Alpine and the northern European regions, with a higher number of taxa in the south. In all regions, the chironomid community was characterized by the genus Diamesa and the subfamily Orthocladiinae. Of a total of 63 taxa recorded, two (Diamesa bertrami and Orthocladius frigidus) were common in all the regions except Svalbard.4. On the basis of cluster analysis, seven distinct groups of sites were evident amongst glacial‐fed systems of the five regions (Pyrenees excluded). This classification separated the glacier‐fed streams on geographical, latitudinal and downstream gradients.5. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) of environmental variables was carried out using 41 taxa at 105 sites. Slope, water depth, distance from source, water temperature and the Pfankuch channel stability index were found to be the major explanatory environmental variables. The analysis separated Diamesinae and typical upstream orthoclads from the other chironomids by low temperature and high channel instability.6. In all six regions, Diamesa was present closest to the glacier. Within 200 m of the glacier snout, other genera of Diamesinae were found together with Orthocladiinae. Pioneer taxa like Diamesa species coexisted with later colonizers like Eukiefferiella minor/fittkaui in relatively unstable channels.7. The longitudinal succession of chironomid assemblages across altitudinal and latitudinal gradients in glacial streams followed the same pattern, with similar genera and groups of species. The general aspects of the conceptual model of Milner &amp; Petts (1994) were supported. However, Diamesa species have wider temperature limits than predicted and other Diamesinae as well as Orthocladiinae colonize metakryal habitats.

Re-strengthening of brickwork to reduce crack width

The main problem encountered in buildings with a traditional outside bearing wall of brickwork and a concrete inside bearing structure is caused by differences in the temperature and moisture-induced movement. Cracks may be discovered in walls and solutions have to be found. The fact that this kind of damage is repairable does not solve the question of whether the difference in temperature movement continues and if, after repair, new cracking occurs. These problems are encountered in ‘De Adelaar’, a historic Dutch building. They may worsen when the building is insulated for a new function as office building. People have to work close to the outer walls, which in wintertime will have quite a low temperature in the northern region of Europe. This means that the workers will radiate heat to the walls and they will feel chilled or will become ill. From the point of view of energy consumption, as well as the esthetical appeal of the brick exterior, the walls should be insulated on the inside rather than the outside, which causes larger temperature and hygral inter-element differences. An existing building has been researched with the assistance of a finite element model, which was recently developed for the analysis of creep, shrinkage and cracking in concrete and masonry. For this separate research, the wall is considered as a homogenous composite with global properties as if the bricks and mortar are modelled separately. A wall section is chosen in such a way that it is representative of the entire wall. Basic questions as, do dilatations help to prevent cracking, the type of insulation and can cracks be prevented or can they be prevented to snap to larger cracks by restrenghtening the brickwork by carbon fibre reinforced plastics, are of importance.

"The American of the Future": Fictional Immigrant Children and National Ethnic Identity in the Progressive Era

"THE AMERICAN OF THE FUTURE": FICTIONAL IMMIGRANT CHILDREN AND NATIONAL ETHNIC IDENTITY IN THE PROGRESSIVE ERA Tim Prchal Oklahoma State University As the nineteenth century became the twentieth, the United States experienced an unprecedented surge in immigration. Some 3.8 million Italians, 3.4 million Slavs, and 1.8 million Russian and Eastern European Jews—along with still more from other ethnic groups—entered the country between 1899 and 1924.1 These numbers worried many native-born Americans, but the ethnic makeup ofthese newcomers was an even greater source ofanxiety. Unlikethe so-called "old immigrants," who had come from the northern and western regions ofEurope (and continuedto do so in declining percentages), the majority ofthese "new immigrants" were arriving from southern and eastern Europe. Descendants ofthe earlier immigrant groups often perceivedthe Italians, Slavs, Jews, and others entering the country as belonging to races that were different from and inferior to their own. Fervent debates over how the nation might deal with the perceived threat of cultural deterioration split Americans into four camps: one advocating immigration restriction ; one pressing for all immigrants to put aside their ethnic distinctiveness and assimilate into the dominant culture; one seeing the best traits ofthe world's peoples merging to create an ever-evolving, cosmopolitan American race in the national melting pot; and one introducing the radical notion ofwhat came to be called "cultural pluralism," avision ofa heterogeneous countrywhere ethnic difference is respected rather than erased. Each of these four camps was concerned with the nation's future as well as its present, and so immigrant children took on a special significance . This is especially evident in an essay titled "Whose Country Is This?" published in Good Housekeeping in 1921. Here, Calvin Coolidge, who was Vice President at the time, advocates carefully adding restrictions to immigration policies. After explaining the threats that immigration poses to national labor and market practices, he concludes by saying, "We must rememberthat we have not onlythe present but the future to safeguard; our obligations extend even to generations 1 90Timothy Prchal yet unborn. The unassimilated alien child menaces our children, as the alien industrial worker . . . menaces our industry."2 A much warmer welcome came from Jane Addams, who founded Hull House in Chicago to help newcomers adjust to their new environment. Adjustment, though, for Addams, involved assimilation into the dominant culture.3 Seeing interaction between immigrant and native-born populations as an efficient route to such assimilation, she depicted children as among the best mediators. In 1905, Addams asked about the urban isolation of ethnic groups, "What agency exists to acquaint them with each other, to span the gulfof language, religion and all that keeps them apart? It is the little children who play in the streets. They are doing the work which cultivated people ought to be undertaking consciously and doing better."4 Many restrictionists and assimilationists agreed that the nation's greatness was verymuch the product ofits old-immigrantheritage and that the inherited culture was well worth preserving. However , the assimilationists felt that new immigrants could conform to the culture developed by this stock while the restrictionists felt that barriers such as the new immigrants' innate inferiority, their vast numbers, or their ethnic pride were too overwhelming for assimilation to occur. These campaigns to preserve the dominant culture were challenged by those in the melting pot and cultural pluralism camps, who saw the new immigration as an opportunity to enhance the nation. Again, immigrant children play a role in the discourse of these camps. Representing the melting pot perspective is an essay titled "The American of the Future," first published in a 1907 issue of The Century. Here, ColumbiaUniversityprofessor and social commentatorBrander Matthews allays concerns about U.S. census records revealing a glut of unassimilated immigrants by saying, "The boys and girls ofLittle Italy speak English as fluently as they speak Italian, and while they salute the flag in school, in the street they amuse themselves . . . with the traditional games ofAnglo-Saxon youth." The children ofimmigrants, he continues, are attaining college degrees and forgetting theirparents' native languages. Rather than endorsing assimilation, however, Matthews is assuring readers that cultural change is alive in immigrant communities—just as it is in...

Effects of long-term ultraviolet radiation: the white form of Metridium senile (Anthozoa: Actiniaria) as a potential biological indicator for ultraviolet

Genetically identical individuals of the white form of Metridium senile were kept in the laboratory for 40 months, during almost 2 years of which they were irradiated with ultraviolet (UV) radiation simulating the shape of the solar UV spectrum. The living and experimental conditions were largely matched to the conditions in the sea anemones' natural habitat on the North Sea coast. Controls were shielded from direct radiation or irradiated with only the visible range of the spectrum; for the UV tests, the UV component corresponded either to the conditions in the natural habitat or to twice or 4 times this dose. All experiments were preceded by a several-month settling-in period, and UV irradiation was always begun at a low intensity. Under these conditions UV was not lethal but produced many parameter changes, of which only those that were irreversible for the entire duration of the experiment, from September 1992 to August 1994, are described here. The body mass fell significantly in all three UV-radiation modes. All irradiated animals positioned themselves so as to be less exposed to the radiation, and all changed colour from white to brown. These responses are discussed with reference to the potential of M. senile as an indicator or monitor for UV in the northern European coastal region. Field analyses are currently being conducted to demonstrate the extent to which the present results apply to field conditions.

Outdoor clothing: its relationship to geography, climate, behaviour and cold-related mortality in Europe.

It has been suggested, that the inhabitants of northern European regions, who experience little cold-related mortality, protect themselves outdoors by wearing more clothing, at the same temperature, than people living in southern regions where such mortality is high. Outdoor clothing data were collected in eight regions from 6583 people divided by sex and age group (50-59 and 65-74 years). Across Europe, the total clothing worn (as assessed by dry thermal insulation and numbers of items or layers) increased significantly with cold, wind, less physical activity and longer periods outdoors. Men wore 0.14 clo (1 clo = 0.115 m2 K W-1) more than women and the older people wore 0.05 clo more than the younger group (both P < 0.001). After allowance for these factors, regional differences in insulation and item number were correlated (r = -0.74, P = 0.037; r = -0.74, P = 0.036 respectively), but not those in clothing layers (r = -0.21; P = 0.61), with indices of cold-related mortality. Cold weather most increased the wearing of gloves, scarves and hats. The geographical variation in the wearing of these three together items more closely matched that in cold-related mortality (r = -0.89, P = 0.003). A possible explanation for this may be that they protect the head and hands, where stimulation by cold greatly increases peripheral vasoconstriction causing a rise in blood pressure that procedure haemoconcentration and raised cardiovascular risk.

Migration patterns of Common Gulls Larus canus ringed in the non‐breeding season in Copenhagen and the surrounding area

In the greater Copenhagen area (54°59'‐56°07'N, 11°55'12°40'E) 4899 Common Gulls were ringed from September to April in 1976 to 1993. Up to 31 December 1993, 11,824 ring‐recoveries from 2,388 gulls (49% of the total number ringed) had been received. Copenhagen lies on the Common Gull migration route from northeastern to western Europe. The directions of migration are southwest in autumn and northeast in spring. The autumn migration in some years lasts up to mid‐January, possibly longer. Older birds migrate farther from the wintering grounds and further north than younger ones. The data suggest that annual mortality rate for second‐year and older birds has not increased during the last two or three decades. Common Gull mortality rate steadily decreases with age at least up to maturity. Common Gulls, ringed in any part of the Copenhagen area, have almost equal likelihood of being found in any part of the recovery range. Gulls from different breeding localities or from different wintering grounds fly across the Copenhagen area in different days. The dates of movements of these groups vary from year to year and, possibly, depend on the particular year conditions. There are almost no recoveries from some regions in northern Europe of the birds ringed in the Copenhagen area, but the number of recoveries in the Copenhagen area from those regions is very large. At the same time, there are quite a few recoveries from northeastern Europe and central Russia. Since the numbers of Common Gulls in central Russia are currently increasing, one of the possible explanations of those facts is that young Common Gulls that were in some areas of northern Europe never return to breed. They hatched to breed southeast of their natal area, some in areas southeast of the White Sea. We suggest that a redistribution process within the European Common Gull breeding population is taking place but this problem needs further investigation.

Using soil and Quaternary geological information to assess the intrinsic groundwater vulnerability of shallow aquifers: an example from Lithuania

Lithuania, in the Baltic region of northern Europe, is heavily dependent on groundwater resources for its public water supply, with a large proportion, especially in rural areas, derived from shallow Quaternary aquifers. A national groundwater-vulnerability methodology, based upon the UK approach, has been developed on behalf of the Lithuanian Ministry of Environmental Protection as a possible basis for the future protection of shallow groundwater resources for the rural inhabitants.

Tansley Review No. 114

A cyclic behaviour in the intensity of maritime conditions which varies with the periodic behaviour of the North Atlantic oscillation has recently become apparent in the climatic record of northern Europe. Periodic increases in oceanicity are usually viewed as having a positive effect on plant survival, as milder winters, reduction of temperature extremes, low risk of exposure to frost, and freedom from drought reduce many aspects of environmental stress. However, warmer winters in maritime environments may also have a powerful influence in creating habitats that are unfavourable for many species. The dangers of long periods of soil saturation for overwintering plants, soaking injury to germinating seeds, premature bud burst in spring, depression of treelines by increased cloud cover and high lapse rates, as well as the constant leaching of soils, are all negative aspects of the maritime environment. Woody species in which root dormancy is delayed by mild winters are particularly vulnerable to the consequences of winter flooding. Subsequent re‐exposure to oxygen as water tables fall in spring can aggravate flooding damage through post‐anoxic injury, leading to severe dieback of anchoring roots. Soil leaching, particularly after human disturbance, can induce nutrient deficiencies and the establishment of oligotrophic communities with reduced productivity. Podzolization and iron pan formation have in the past facilitated the processes of paludification in oceanic regions. The resulting spread of bogs and acid moorlands can further reduce the potential for productivity in both agriculture and natural plant communities. Given the probability that current climatic trends may increase the degree of oceanicity in western and northern regions of Europe, the potentially negative consequences of such a climatic change need to be considered in relation to future ecological changes and their consequences for conservation and land use. contents Summary 257 I. defining and quantifying oceanicity 257 II. ecological consequences of oceanicity 261 III. ecological history of oceanicity in western europe 263 IV. positive and negative influences of oceanicity 267 V. modifying effects of oceanicity on plant distribution 269 VI. physiological impact of warm winters 271 VII. treelines and oceanicity 276 VIII. conclusions 278 Acknowledgements 279

Argonauts of the North

1 Argonauts of the North by Kenneth O. Bjork Although Norwegian Americans in general showed little interest in Alaska prior to the depression beginning in 1893, to fishermen in the Pacific Northwest it was familiar territory at an earlier date. Scandinavians in Astoria, Oregon, were hired in the early 1890s to work in the Alaskan fisheries during the summer months. One of them, L. O. Belland, wrote in 1890 of the fine quality and abundance offish, especially salmon, "up north" and described the activities of canneries in Bristol Bay. Captain E. L. Skog sailed north each year on a four-month trip to fish for cod in the Bering Sea. He was skipper of the Puget Sound Alaska Commercial Company s schooner Moonlight, one of the firm's organizers, and director of its operations at Mukilteo, Washington. Similarly, Norwegian sealers out ofVictoria, Vancouver Island, often visited Alaska. Others, with no personal interest in drawing their countrymen to Alaska, saw great possibilities for Scandinavians in the territory . A prominent Swedish American, John Lind, then a member of Congress and later governor of Minnesota, wrote in the spring of 1892 of a visit to Puget Sound and British Columbia and of his association in Washington, D.C. with Dr. Leonard Stejneger, a brilliant Norwegian ornithologist with the Smithsonian Institution. In a letter to Skandinaven in April, he discussed a common Scandinavian interest in Alaska and urged persons with capital to look into the possibilities for profitable investments along the west coast and 3 4 Kenneth O. Bjork in Alaska. Lind also enclosed a letter from Dr. Stejneger that was actually a detailed report on the special attractions from Alaska, which the ornithologist knew well from having lived there, written for immigrants from Sweden and Norway. Southeastern Alaska, in particular, he maintained, resembled their homeland and contained riches in the form of gold, fish, and furs. Stejneger was convinced that Alaska one day would have a relatively dense population, and that persons from the coastal regions in northern Europe were best suited for life there. But in the early 1890s it was virgin territory, resembling Scandinavia "when our ancestors landed there." The land would have to be cleared, but "in an age of steam and electricity, it would require only decades for what then took centuries, and the yield would be greater and more gratifying." Skandinaven gave strong editorial support to the suggestions of Lind and Stejneger and added that Scandinavians could be lords in the North - but it would be well for them to have some capital. When a businessman like H. C. Wahlberg of Seattle discussed Alaska in early 1893, he saw profits in fish - to Norwegians the most readily extracted form of wealth. The territory, he reasoned, would become the Lofoten Islands and Finnmark of the New World. The best way to begin realizing this goal, he thought, was to start a Norwegian or Scandinavian colony in southeastern Alaska warmed by the Japan Current as Norway was warmed by the Gulf Stream. He proposed a meeting inTacoma or Seatde to explore the possibility of a settlement and suggested that, in addition to fishermen , it should have sailors, farmers, loggers, coopers, and other artisans . If ten or twenty such men - each with cash in the amount of $500 - would go to Alaska together, they could do very well for themselves. They should choose a committee of four or five men to work out the rules for a colony, decide basic business matters, and hunt out a suitable location. They should secure a good ship, find a desirable site, and return by fall, when a cooperative program could be worked out. Such views were confirmed in part by William A. Kjellman (Kjellmann), who in the employ of the American government went to Alaska in 1894 in charge of a group of Norwegian Sami chosen to train Eskimos in the reindeer culture. He explained that Argonauts of the North 5 twenty-two canneries were annually packing 646,000 cases of salmon, and that the salmon and halibut industries were monopolies owned by companies with large capital reserves. There was, he wrote, "no prospect at all that a private individual would be able to...

Temporal variability of the seasonal sea-level cycle in the North Sea and Baltic Sea in relation to climate variability

Based on monthly mean sea-level and meteorological data from the North Sea and Baltic Sea areas, the temporal variability of the annual and semiannual constituents in sea level and meteorological parameters is investigated on decadal time scales. A significant regionally coherent temporal variability of the annual and semiannual constituents in sea level, air pressure, air temperature and the wind field is established. The decadal variability of the annual and semiannual constituents in sea level is found to be closely correlated with the variability in the mechanical atmospheric forcing. This indicates a non-steric contribution to the long-period variations of the seasonal cycle in coastal sea level. In all parameters considered, the largest changes compared to earlier times occurred in the last two decades. The variation found in air pressure indicates an increase of the difference between maritime and continental climate regions in Northern Europe. These variations may be linked to variations of the North Atlantic Oscillation on decadal time scales as well as a general warming trend.