Refusal Assertiveness Research Articles

Precollege Risk Markers for College Rape and Verbal Sexual Coercion: Same or Different?

Verbal sexual coercion (VSC) and rape are common experiences among college women. Although they have been theorized to involve different risk markers, few prospective studies have examined predictors of VSC and rape separately. The present prospective study was designed to identify precollege risk markers for VSC and rape in first-year college women, with the goal of considering the degree to which they overlap or differ. Women (N = 449) recruited from the community just prior to high school graduation completed measures of sexual victimization (SV) since age 14 but prior to college, sexual refusal assertiveness, high school heavy episodic drinking (HED), college drinking intentions, and sociosexuality. Follow-up surveys at the end of the first and second college semesters assessed VSC and rape. Using the Sexual Experiences Survey's severity scoring method, women were classified into one of three groups according to the most severe type of SV reported in the first year of college: neither VSC nor rape (71%), VSC (16%), and rape (13%). Most women who experienced rape (73%) also experienced VSC. Precollege SV and college drinking intentions predicted both rape and VSC. Sexual refusal assertiveness and high school HED did not independently predict either form of victimization. Sociosexuality predicted rape but not VSC. Findings suggest a substantial overlap in the predictors of VSC and rape and support the severity continuum underlying many conceptualizations of SV.

Determinant factors of students’ refusal assertiveness of illicit drugs in Bima indonesia: a logistic regression analysis

Objective: To determine factors correlated with students’ refusal assertiveness of illicit drugs. Methodology: This cross-sectional study was carried out in four junior and senior high schools in Bima from January to October 2023. The sample consisted of 202 students who were selected by simple random sampling method. Data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire. Study was carried out in two parts. First, sociodemographic information about the participants and the second part about knowledge and attitudes toward protect oneself from drug abuse. Data analysis consists of the Chi square test and multivariable logistic regression analysis. Results: Students age was 12-17 years, and out of 202 students, 84 were boys and 118 girls. Mean age at enrollment was 14,67±0,932 years. More participants lived in rural areas of Bima. Based on age, sex, grade of school and area of residence, studeents received counseling on drug abuse prevention and knowledge of drugs. Logistic regression shown that the determinant factors of students' refusal assertiveness of illicit drugs were age (OR 1,6) and gender (OR 0,4) while the region of residence variable was a confounding factor. Conclusion: The determinant factors of students' refusal assertiveness of illicit drugs were age and gender.

Evaluating a Theory-Based Online Program for Preventing Sexual Aggression: An Experimental-Longitudinal Study With German University Students.

This pre-registered study evaluated an intervention designed to reduce sexual aggression perpetration and victimization by changing risky scripts for consensual sexual interactions and corresponding risky sexual behavior, and by improving sexual self-esteem, refusal assertiveness, and initiation assertiveness. In a four-wave longitudinal study covering 23 months, 1181 university students in Germany (762 female) were randomly assigned to an intervention and a no-intervention control group. The intervention group completed six weekly modules addressing the targeted theory-based risk and vulnerability factors of sexual aggression perpetration and victimization. Controlling for baseline levels (T1), the intervention group showed less risky sexual scripts one week post-intervention (T2), which predicted less risky sexual behavior nine months later (T3), which predicted lower odds of sexual aggression perpetration and victimization 12 months later (T4). No direct intervention effects on rates of sexual aggression perpetration and victimization at T3 and T4 were found. No indirect intervention effect on sexual aggression was found via sexual self-esteem and sexual assertiveness. However, sexual self-esteem at T2, which was higher in the intervention group, predicted lower odds of sexual aggression victimization at T3 via higher initiation assertiveness at T3. Implications for reducing sexual aggression and conceptualizing risk and vulnerability factors of sexual aggression are discussed.

The Strong, Silent (Gender) Type: The Strong Black Woman Ideal, Self-Silencing, and Sexual Assertiveness in Black College Women.

Women are socialized to endorse femininity scripts mandating that they prioritize others' needs and engage in self-silencing behaviors. Further, Black women may also endorse the strong Black woman (SBW) ideal, by which they are expected to selflessly meet the needs of their family and community and, as such, may embrace self-silencing in their interpersonal relationships. In a sample of 597 Black undergraduate and graduate college women, we tested whether: (1) self-silencing and SBW ideal endorsement would be independently, inversely associated with three dimensions of sexual assertiveness-communication assertiveness, refusal assertiveness, and pleasure-focused assertiveness; and (2) the association between self-silencing and sexual assertiveness would be stronger among Black women who endorse the SBW ideal. Correlational and regression analyses revealed that self-silencing was negatively linked to all dimensions of sexual assertiveness; SBW ideal endorsement was associated with lower levels of communication and pleasure-focused assertiveness. As expected, SBW ideal endorsement moderated the association between Black women's engagement in self-silencing and two dimensions of sexual assertiveness. Self-silencing was associated with less communication and pleasure-focused assertiveness regardless of their level of SBW endorsement. Findings highlight the complexities of Black women's desire to fulfill expectations to be strong, assertive, and/or compliant and silent. Interventions to promote Black women's sexual health should address sexual assertiveness and feminine silencing norms.

Sexual Victimization in Adulthood and Associated Factors Among Men and Women: Cross-Sectional Evidence from Mainland China

Limited empirical research addresses sexual victimization and related factors among the general adult population in China. To address this gap, we explored the association between sexual victimization in adulthood and associated factors (unwanted sexual experiences [USE] before age 18, binge drinking prior to sex, hooking up, violent pornography use, awareness and perceived behavioral control of consent, and sexual refusal assertiveness) among a convenience Chinese sample. A cross-sectional study was performed in September 2020 among 898 screened men and women from 29 provinces in mainland China. Overall, 52.5% of men and 57.9% of women experienced sexual victimization at least once in adulthood. Men and women differed in the severity of sexual victimization in adulthood, with the mean severity scores of women being significantly higher than those of men. Hierarchical ordinal logistic regression revealed that, after considering control variables, correlates of severity of sexual victimization in adulthood included gender (OR 3.17, 95% CI 2.30-4.40), severity of USE before age 18 (OR 2.28, 95% CI 1.92-2.73), binge drinking prior to sex (OR 2.52, 95% CI 1.83-3.49), hook-up history (OR 2.24, 95% CI 1.49-3.39), violent pornography use (OR 1.07, 95% CI 1.04-1.09), lack of perceived behavioral control of communicating consent (OR 1.04, 95% CI 1.01-1.07), and sexual refusal assertiveness (OR 0.92, 95% CI 0.89-0.95). These findings indicate that early adverse sexual experiences, potential risky sexual behaviors, violent pornography use, and beliefs about consent and refusal may play an important role in predicting sexual victimization among Chinese adults.

Building a Model to Predict Sexual Assault Victimization Frequency Among Undergraduate Women.

Previous research has identified several factors, including sexual risk behaviors, alcohol consumption, sexual refusal assertiveness, impulse control difficulties, drinking to cope, and sex to cope, as being associated with sexual assault victimization. Data were collected from 465 adult, undergraduate women, and analyzed using structural equation modeling to determine how these variables related to one another. Results showed that together, these factors predicted 17.1% of the variance in victimization frequency. These findings may help future researchers better understand the etiology of sexual assault victimization on college campuses and prove crucial to the development of future intervention programs which reduce victimization.

Sexual Re-Assault among College Women Differs Based on Sexual Refusal Assertiveness and Assertive Resistance Strategy Intentions.

Sexual assault and sexual re-assault are common problems on college campuses for women, and experiencing an initial assault dramatically increases risk for experiencing sexual re-assault. Low use of sexual refusal assertiveness and assertive resistance strategy intentions has been found to predict initial victimization, yet few studies to date look collectively at the associations of sexual refusal assertiveness and assertive resistance strategy intentions to sexual re-assault. The current study examined both sexual refusal assertiveness and assertive resistance strategy intentions as potential moderators of sexual re-assault among college women. It was hypothesized that the association between sexual assault severity before college and sexual assault severity since college would be stronger among those with low sexual refusal assertiveness compared to those with high sexual refusal assertiveness (Hypothesis 1). it was also hypothesized that the association between sexual assault severity before college and sexual assault severity since college would be stronger among those who endorsed assertive resistance strategy intentions (Hypothesis 2). Participants (N = 623) included college women at a large, public university within the northwestern region of the United States, who completed a web-based survey. Results revealed that the association between sexual assault severity before college and sexual assault severity since college was significant among those with lower levels of sexual refusal assertiveness (t = 91.42, p < 0 .001). Results also revealed that the association between sexual assault severity before college and sexual assault severity since college was stronger among those who endorsed non-assertive resistance strategy intentions to a potential sexual assault scenario (t = 25.09, p < 0.001). These findings provide insight into risk for sexual re-assault, wherein risk reduction programmatic efforts may be targeted towards women entering college with a sexual assault history to increase their use of sexual refusal assertiveness and assertive resistance strategy intentions.

The Pornography “How-To” Script: The Moderating Role of Consent Attitudes on Pornography Consumption and Sexual Refusal Assertiveness

College students report turning to pornography for guidance regarding sexual expectations and norms. Similarly, research has shown that compulsive pornography exposure (i.e. extreme amounts of viewing and dependence on pornography) leads to an engagement in risky sexual behaviors. This is problematic considering the high rates of sexual assault in college campuses. In light of this, the present study examined whether compulsive pornography exposure was associated with college students’ sexual refusal assertiveness, and whether this relationship would be moderated by consent attitudes. Data were collected from 266 college students who regularly watched pornography (Mage = 20.60, SD = 2.77, 45.1% female). Results showed that compulsive pornography exposure was negatively associated with sexual refusal assertiveness. An interaction emerged such that the association between compulsive pornography exposure and sexual refusal assertiveness was only significant for those who believed consent was less important, whereas this did not occur for those who believed consent was more important. Our results are unpacked in light of sexual script-based theories.

Asserting sexual (dis)interest: How do women’s capabilities differ?

Sexual autonomy implies consistency between one’s internal desires and sexual behaviours. Sexual assertiveness has been defined as the strategies used to accomplish such consistency, and to therefore be sexually autonomous. Sexual assertiveness encompasses skills in refusing unwanted sexual situations and bringing about wanted sexual situations. Measures of sexual assertiveness typically assess both refusal sexual assertiveness (RSA) and initiation sexual assertiveness (ISA), yet there is a dearth of research examining these skills in relation to one another. The present study examined the relationship between women’s RSA and ISA, exploring predictors of each. A total of 487 heterosexual and 129 lesbian, bisexual, questioning and other (LBQ +) women completed the online survey, including women recruited from an undergraduate psychology program at an Ontario university and from communities across Canada using social media. ISA and RSA were only moderately correlated. General assertiveness in non-sexual situations was only one of several variables predictive of ISA and RSA, indicating that there is something unique to assertiveness in the sexual context. Committed relationship context and erotophilic disposition specifically predicted initiation assertiveness. Less endorsement of the sexual double standard specifically predicted refusal assertiveness. No significant differences emerged in predictors of ISA and RSA when comparing sexual orientation groups. However, LBQ + women unexpectedly reported lower levels of RSA overall. Implications for supporting the development of sexual assertiveness and avenues for future research are discussed.

When Do Motives to Sexually Please a Male Partner Benefit Women’s Own Sexual Agency?

Motivation to please a partner sexually, also known as sexual communal strength (SCS), has been positively associated with sexual and relationship functioning, particularly for partners. We used a critical sexuality studies approach to examine SCS as it relates to women’s own sexual agency. We also examined the potential moderating role of partner sexual coercion, defined as persistent pressure to attain sex. Specifically, we investigated whether frequency of partner sexual coercion moderates the effect of SCS on three different aspects of women’s sexual agency: sexual desire, sexual refusal assertiveness, and relational power. Participants were 172 U.S. women in dating relationships with men who responded to self-report measures. Results showed that SCS was positively related to women’s own sexual desire, regardless of how often women experienced partner sexual coercion. SCS and partner sexual coercion frequency were associated with sexual refusal assertiveness: The least assertive women reported both higher SCS and more frequent partner coercion. Sexual coercion frequency was negatively related to women’s relational power, regardless of their own SCS. These findings support educational and clinical interventions to reduce sexual coercion and suggest the concept of SCS be further refined to better account for the potential roles sexual coercion and heterosexual norms play more broadly.

Predicting Sexual Victimization Among College Students in Chile and Turkey: A Cross-Cultural Analysis.

To address the shortage of cross-cultural research on vulnerability factors of sexual victimization, this two-wave longitudinal study examined predictors of sexual victimization among female and male college students in Chile (N = 1098) and Turkey (N = 885). These two countries were selected based on theoretical considerations regarding religiosity and gender inequality. A path model was tested that conceptualized participants' risky scripts for consensual sex, risky sexual behavior, sexual self-esteem, refusal assertiveness, and religiosity at T1 as predictors of sexual victimization in the following 12months, as assessed at T2, mediated through past experiences of sexual victimization. As predicted, more risky sexual scripts were linked to more risky sexual behavior and lower refusal assertiveness, indirectly increasing the odds of sexual victimization in both countries. Lower sexual self-esteem predicted a higher probability of sexual victimization through lower refusal assertiveness as well as through more risky sexual behavior in both the Chilean and Turkish samples. Higher religiosity in Chile, a Christian country, and Turkey, a Muslim country, indirectly predicted a lower vulnerability to sexual victimization through less risky sexual scripts and less risky sexual behavior. In the Turkish sample only, higher religiosity predicted a higher vulnerability to sexual victimization through lower sexual self-esteem. The findings show that risky sexual scripts played a central role in the prediction of sexual victimization in both cultures, which has implications for prevention efforts.

Sexual Perfectionism and Women’s Sexual Assertiveness: Understanding the Unique Effects of Perfectionistic Expectations about Sex Originating from and Directed toward the Sexual Partner

We investigated how dimensions of sexual perfectionism (i.e., self-directed, partner-directed, partner-prescribed, and socially-prescribed), which reflect expectations to be a perfect sexual partner, related to sexual assertiveness in women. Women (n = 202) in the United States recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk, who self-reported having previously engaged in sexual activity, served as participants and completed the Multidimensional Sexual Perfectionism Questionnaire and the Sexual Assertiveness Scale. Results revealed that all four dimensions of sexual perfectionism related to lower levels of assertiveness around refusal of unwanted sexual activity and accounted for approximately 19% of its variance. When controlling for shared variance across dimensions of sexual perfectionism, only partner-prescribed sexual perfectionism uniquely related to lower levels of refusal assertiveness. In addition, partner-prescribed sexual perfectionism related to lower levels of assertiveness around initiation of desired sexual activity (i.e., initiation assertiveness) when holding levels of sexual perfectionism on other dimensions constant. In contrast, partner-directed sexual perfectionism related to higher levels of initiation assertiveness when holding constant the other dimensions of sexual perfectionism. We conclude that sexual perfectionism (particularly perceived perfectionistic expectations from sexual partners) appears to be a salient concept in understanding what may hinder women from sexually asserting themselves.

Rape myth acceptance and rape acknowledgment: The mediating role of sexual refusal assertiveness

Unacknowledged rape, defined as when an individual experiences an event that meets a legal or empirical definition of rape but the individual does not label it as such, is prevalent. Research examining predictors of rape acknowledgment is needed. Sexual assertiveness may be an important variable to consider, as an individual's typical behavior during sexual situations may influence rape acknowledgment. To assess the indirect effect of rape myth acceptance on rape acknowledgment through sexual refusal assertiveness, an online survey of 181 female rape survivors was conducted. The indirect effects of two types of rape myths (He didn’t mean to and Rape is a deviant event) were significant and positive. Specifically, acceptance of these two rape myths was negatively related to sexual refusal assertiveness, which was negatively associated with likelihood of rape acknowledgment. The results of this study indicate that sexual refusal assertiveness is associated with lower likelihood of rape acknowledgment among rape survivors. As a result, it appears that, under certain circumstances, women high in rape myth acceptance may be more likely to acknowledge rape when it results in decreased sexual refusal assertiveness.

Predicting Sexual Assault Revictimization in a Longitudinal Sample of Women Survivors: Variation by Type of Assault

This study used a large community sample of women sexual assault survivors to prospectively assess 17 theorized predictors across four types of sexual assault revictimization: unwanted contact, coercion, substance-involved assault (SIA), and force. Results indicated that predictors varied across types of revictimization: Unwanted contact and coercion appeared more common in social contexts more hostile toward survivors, whereas forcible assaults and SIAs occurred in circumstances where survivors were vulnerable to being targeted by perpetrators. Overall, the strongest predictors were social environments hostile to survivors, race, childhood sexual abuse, decreased refusal assertiveness, and having more sexual partners. We discuss implications for intervention and research.

Sexual objectification and sexual assault: Do self-objectification and sexual assertiveness account for the link?

OBJECTIVE: Recent research grounded in objectification theory reveals significant positive associations between experiences of sexual objectification and sexual assault victimization. However, it remains unclear why this relationship exists. To address this question, we tested a path model in which repeated experiences of body evaluation (a form of sexual objectification) were expected to increase risk of sexual assault via the mechanisms of increased body surveillance (a form of self-objectification) and lower sexual assertiveness. METHOD: Participants were 297 undergraduate women who completed validated measures assessing their body evaluation experiences, body surveillance, sexual refusal assertiveness, and sexual victimization. RESULTS: Correlations revealed expected relations among the variables. As hypothesized, the results of path analyses revealed that higher body evaluation predicted greater sexual victimization both directly and indirectly via higher body surveillance and lower sexual assertiveness. CONCLUSION: This study identifies body surveillance and sexual assertiveness as potentially important factors that may mediate associations between experiences of body evaluation and sexual assault. FINDINGS suggest that interventions designed to interrupt persistent body surveillance and bolster assertiveness in the face of unwanted sexual experiences may be effective in reducing sexual assault. ©2016 American Psychological Association Language: en

Psychometric properties of coping and self-efficacy scales related to substance use in a sample of Iranian adolescents

Aim: This study aimed to investigate the cultural adaptation and psychometric properties of the Persian version of self-efficacy and coping skill scales (CSE) which are relevant to substance use in Iranian adolescents. Method: The method included a forward–backward translation with face and content validity in the first step and the psychometric properties were evaluated in the second step. The study used reliability and construct validity in a cross-sectional survey, in three steps, including: item analysis, explanatory and confirmatory factor analyses in 720 adolescents, aged from 14 to 18 years old in Isfahan. Findings: In the first step, three items were excluded because of low CVI and one item was deleted due to low CITC. EFA in the cross-sectional study showed appropriate loading items and revealed an 18-item scale with four factors including: refusal self-efficacy, decision making, assertiveness and communication skills. Results of the confirmatory factor analysis represented an acceptable fitness (CMIN/DF = 3.6, NFI = 0.90, TLI = 0.92, CFI = 0.93, PNFI = 0.76, RMSEA = 0.06). Internal consistency was found from 0.68 to 0.89 for the four subscales. Conclusion: Overall, the results of these studies indicate that the Persian version of coping and self-efficacy appears to be a psychometrically robust instrument and could significantly predict substance use behaviour in Iranian adolescents.

Mediators of Sexual Revictimization Risk in Adult Sexual Assault Victims

This study examined sexual risk behaviors and sexual refusal assertiveness in relationship to child sexual abuse, emotion dysregulation, and adult sexual revictimization. Path analyses of 1,094 survivors who had sex in the past year were done to examine sexual risk behavior and sexual refusal assertiveness mediational pathways by which child sexual abuse severity and emotion dysregulation may affect revictimization over one year in adult female sexual assault survivors. Exchanging sex for money and sexual refusal assertiveness were significantly associated with emotion dysregulation, whereas exchanging sex for money, and not sexual refusal assertiveness, was only significantly related to child sexual abuse severity. Both exchanging sex for money and sex refusal assertiveness mediated the relationship between emotion dysregulation and adult sexual revictimization. Exchanging sex for money mediated the child sexual abuse severity-revictimization relationship. These findings demonstrate the importance of considering both risky and protective sexual behaviors in research and prevention programming that address sexual revictimization in women.

Feminine ideology and sexual assault: are more traditional college women at greater risk?

Previous research has not conclusively determined whether traditional femininity increases women's risk for sexual assault. Certain femininity beliefs, such as valuing deference, may increase risk for sexual assault by discouraging sexual refusal assertiveness (SRA). Other femininity beliefs, such as valuing purity, may promote self-protective behaviors. College women (N = 254) provided self-report data on these beliefs, risk and protective behaviors, and sexual assault experiences. Traditional femininity was not directly associated with experiencing sexual assault. However, specific traditional beliefs were related to behaviors directly associated with risk. High SRA and sexual abstinence simultaneously reduced the odds for sexual assault.

Sexual Assertiveness Mediates the Effect of Social Interaction Anxiety on Sexual Victimization Risk Among College Women

Sexual victimization is prevalent among college women and is associated with adverse psychological consequences. Social anxiety, particularly related to interpersonal interaction, may increase risk of sexual victimization among college women by decreasing sexual assertiveness and decreasing the likelihood of using assertive resistance techniques. This study examined social interaction anxiety as a risk factor for sexual victimization. College women (n=672) completed online measures of social interaction anxiety, sexual assertiveness, and sexual victimization experiences. Social interaction anxiety was significantly positively related to likelihood of experiencing coerced sexual intercourse, and significant indirect effects, via decreased sexual refusal assertiveness, were found for both coerced sexual intercourse and rape. Social anxiety may be an important psychological barrier to assertive resistance during risky sexual situations, and developers of risk reduction programs for college women should consider including methods to help women overcome their social anxiety in order to successfully use assertive resistance techniques.

The Moderating Role of Close Friends in the Relationship Between Conduct Problems and Adolescent Substance Use

PurposeConduct problems and peer effects are among the strongest risk factors for adolescent substance use and problem use. However, it is unclear to what extent the effects of conduct problems and peer behavior interact, and whether adolescents' capacity to refuse the offer of substances may moderate such links. This study was conducted to examine relationships between conduct problems, close friends' substance use, and refusal assertiveness with adolescents' alcohol use problems, tobacco, and marijuana use.MethodsWe studied a population-based sample of 1,237 individuals from the Cardiff Study of All Wales and North West of England Twins aged 11–18 years. Adolescent and mother-reported information was obtained. Statistical analyses included cross-sectional and prospective logistic regression models and family-based permutations.ResultsConduct problems and close friends' substance use were associated with increased adolescents' substance use, whereas refusal assertiveness was associated with lower use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana. Peer substance use moderated the relationship between conduct problems and alcohol use problems, such that conduct problems were only related to increased risk for alcohol use problems in the presence of substance-using friends. This effect was found in both cross-sectional and prospective analyses and confirmed using the permutation approach.ConclusionsReduced opportunities for interaction with alcohol-using peers may lower the risk of alcohol use problems in adolescents with conduct problems.