Reflexive Verbs Research Articles

Tu sijè magnète. Hesse ha ite: some morphosyntactic characteristics of the verb in Ortonese compared with Italian

Introduction: The verb is one of the most complex grammatical categories, especially when the language in question is not official. This is the case with Ortonese, an Adriatic variant of Abruzzese spoken in Ortona (CH). The aim of this article is to provide a preliminary detailed analysis of the verb in Ortonese, starting with a morphosyntactic description compared to Italian. Methodology: The analysis begins by dividing Ortonese verbs into four main conjugations. Several relevant linguistic phenomena are examined, such as the transitivization of intransitive verbs, the presence of the prepositional accusative in verbs like "sendì" (to hear), which is absent in Italian, and the transformation of transitive and intransitive verbs into reflexive forms. Additionally, differences between "esse" (to be) and "sctè" (to stay), and between "avè" (to have) and "tenè" (to hold) are analyzed. Results: The core of the research is the analysis of all the tenses of the indicative mood in modern Ortonese. Simple tenses, such as the present and future, as well as compound tenses, like the future perfect, the present perfect, and the past perfect, are examined. The study also includes some irregular verbs and pays particular attention to the complexity of auxiliary selection, which in Ortonese, unlike Italian, depends not on the type of verb but on the subject's person. Discussion: The Ortonese verbal system exhibits a number of unique characteristics compared to standard Italian, particularly in terms of auxiliary selection and the formation of reflexive verbs. Some phenomena, such as the prepositional accusative and the distinction between "esse" and "sctè", reflect a structural complexity that warrants further investigation and highlights the linguistic richness of Abruzzese dialects. Conclusions: This study represents a first step towards a deeper understanding of the Ortonese verbal system. The morphosyntactic analysis compared to Italian reveals linguistic peculiarities that distinguish Ortonese as a dialectal variety of great interest to linguistics.

The Nature and Structure of Reflexive Verb Constructions

Based on a summary of the features of reflexive verb constructions (ReVCs), this paper proposes that the internal structure of reflexive verb constructions is [VP Spec[V` V R]]. Whether it occurs overtly or covertly, the reflexive constituent is base-generated in the position of the complement of V. Its occurrence in other positions results from movement of the reflexive constituent. Due to the existence of the covert pronoun, the whole reflexive verb constructions cannot assign accusative case to other constituents. Therefore, reflexive verb constructions cannot be followed by an object. The reflexive pronoun introduces reflexive interpretation, as a consequence of which the verb is characterized by reflexivity. A reflexive verb construction operates in the syntax as a complete syntactic object and hence occupies a syntactic position. The whole reflexive verb construction can function as the object in the specifier position of VP and move to the position of the light verb to function as the predicate, followed by a tense or aspect marker.

REFLEXIVE AND ANTI-CAUSATIVE VERB PRODUCTION REVISITED

The aim of the present research was to reexamine the production of reflexive and anti-causative se-verbs in Serbian at different stages of language acquisition after a nine-month period from the first experiment (Ilić, 2019). The results of the first experiment suggest the following order of acquisition: lexical reflexive > true reflexive > anti-causative verbs. Moreover, they speak in favour of the Continuity Hypothesis (Snyder et al., 1995; Snyder & Hyams, 2015), since the children were able to produce reflexive forms correctly from the earliest tested age. The verbs which were tested in both experiments were true reflexive (e.g. kupati se ‘wash oneself’), lexical reflexive (e.g. vrteti se ‘spin’) and anti-causative se-verbs (e.g. otvoriti se ‘open’). A total of sixty subjects belonging to three age groups (40-51, 52-63, 65-77 months, twenty participants in each group) took part in the research. The data collection technique was a verb elicitation task, and the children were asked to name the activities presented in the visual stimuli. The number of tested verbs was the same for each verb type (six per group). The production of verbs across age groups improved in comparison with the first experiment. The production of lexical reflexive verbs was significantly better than the production of anti-causative verbs in the youngest group. Therefore, the results of the follow-up experiment have confirmed the suggested order of acquisition. However, no differences were found in the two older groups, which indicates that the production of more complex verb types improves considerably between the ages of four and five.

From Language Teaching Science to General and Applied Linguistic Science. Reflexive Verbs: Linguistic Educt & Language Teaching Recommended Guideline

From Language Teaching Science to General and Applied Linguistic Science. Reflexive Verbs: Linguistic Educt & Language Teaching Recommended Guideline

The main trends in the word-formative adaptation of the latest borrowings to denote actions and states in the Ukrainian literary language of the 21 st century

At the beginning of the 21 st century, especially in its second decade, foreign units were entering to the journalistic and scientific Ukrainian language so rapidly that linguists sometimes did not have time for objective reasons to evaluate their “quality” and the appropriateness of their use. The activation of borrowings caused a certain disorder: adaptation to the grammatical system of the Ukrainian language occurs unevenly, often with hesitation in word-formative adaptation. A significant number of new adapted borrowed lexemes are not yet in normative, general or industry dictionaries. The most verb lexemes appeared primarily in the field of information technology, quite a few verb lexemes appeared in the field of business, finance, psychology, cosmetology etc. Lexemes of the foreign languages (mostly from English, less often from German, French, Italian or other languages) such as verbs and nouns were adapted in Ukrainian using verb suffixes -ува-, -изува-/-ізува-. The dynamic entry of such words into modern Ukrainian has caused a multi- tude of ways of them adaptation. It is often difficult to determine whether a verb in the Ukrai- nian language has been formed from a foreign verb or noun. This indicates the ambiguous word-formation adaptation of the analyzed verbs. The verb suffix -и- also proved to be productive in adaptation of the new borrowings. The verbs formed with it have common root corre- lates among foreign verbs and nouns. We observe hesitation in the word-formative adaptation of some verbs. It is indicates by the availability of common root variants with suffixes -ува– and -и-. Derivatives that have replenished the stock of reflexive verbs have been formed from some of the analyzed lexemes either with the help of the postfix -ся, or this postfix and the suffix -и-. Among the prefixes which found in borrowed verb lexemes, the prefix ре- is regularly used and the prefix де- is somewhat less used. In enriching the lexicon of the Ukrainian language with borrowings, there are many cases of simultaneous adaptation to modern Ukrainian of related verb structures: with a prefix and without it. Sometimes it is difficult to establish the direction of derivation. Common root lexemes could have entered modern Ukrainian directly from English or another language with a prefix or have been formed with a prefix from verbs adapted in a suffixal way. The second stage of word-formative adaptation of borrowings shows that derivatives have been formed from many verb bases adapted in modern Ukrainian using proper Ukrainian productive word-forming prefixes зà-, з-(с-), нà-, роз-, по-, про-, пере-, which express the word-formative semantics usual for them. Unmotivated, groundless oversaturation of modern Ukrainian literary language with borrowed lexemes, word-formative formants, etc., uncontrolled using of such units lead to the leveling of national features of the Ukrainian language. This problem prompts a rethinking of ways to replenish the terminological systems of various branches of science with new borrowed language units and this problem prompts to a more critical usage of criteria for adaptation of foreign lexemes. Keywords: borrowings to denote actions and states, word-formative adaptation, proper Ukrainian word-forming verb suffixes, proper Ukrainian word-forming verb prefixes, foreign languages bases.

Current ways of expressing voice in Ukrainian language

The article covers consideration and analysis of syntactic rules for the category of voice in modern Ukrainian language, particularly in the sphere of professional communication. The proposed study traces the definitions of active and passive voice constructions, introduces definitions of direct and indirect subject, and also analyzes the formation of the indirect subject, indicating its belonging to the class of animate and inanimate objects. The article considers various ways of correct conveying of thoughts, accurate and logical presentation of the context, which can be achieved through particular syntactic norms of different styles in professional speech, using such verb voices as active and passive, as well as the reflexive voice, which is inherent, in particular, to Ukrainian language. Therefore, the author analyzes semantic structure of a clause from the point of view on reflecting transient process. Indicating the direct order of words in the sentence, it is manifested that subject in a sentence expresses a person or an object, a phenomenon that performs certain action, an object or a person that is in specific texts like natural, technical or social narratives, where subjects may be animate and inanimate ones. Formulating the idea through linguistic means in such clauses, statements, etc., it is affirmed that the semantic structure of the sentence is to be structured by definite syntactical model. Also, through the study it has been defined the status of verbs with the postfix -sia (ukr. -ся) in contemporary Ukrainian language. Its uncertainty of usage is sometimes observed mentioning passive and reflexive voices in Ukrainian. This postfix historical development of applying within the morphological structure of the word, word combination and clause has been analyzed. The author believes that it indicates the action is accomplished by the subject itself. The characteristic features of the development of reflexive verbs used for various semantic connotations are distinguished considering relationship between subject and object in action, which allowed the author to distinguish at least their six qualifications keeping in mind much broader verb classification within reflexive constructions. Taking into consideration that the mentioned verbs with postfix -sia are referred to the reflexive voice. It is emphasized that verbs with the mentioned postfix are derived from transitive verbs. In conclusion it is emphasized that in modern Ukrainian literary language, and especially professional one, two-part active and passive constructions are commonly used, and the usage of reflexive voice needs further scientific investigation and study.

Reflexive verbs in the Ukrainian language: Theoretical-linguistic and linguo-didactic aspects

The author of this article attempts to determine the formal, semantic and functional peculiarities of Ukrainian reflexive verbs important for their linguo-didactic description. Because of their incidence, the verbs with the postfix -ся hold an important place in the learning system of Ukrainian as foreign language, while at the same time being one of the most complicated lexical groups for learning by foreign communicators. To make the learning process of reflexive verbs easier for foreign students, 152 verbal lexemes were selected for the analysis, belonging to the five most representative groups, sorted according to the criterium of defining subjective and objective relations. Some linguo-methodical recommendations were proposed, with the aim of forming and developing the ability of foreign communicators to properly use the analyzed vocabulary in speech; the recommendations take into account the formal word forming features of reflexive verbs, grammatical characteristics and their lexical conjunction.

Vārdi zagt un zaglis senajos latviešu rakstu avotos

In the article, the words zagt ‘to steal’ and zaglis ‘thief’ and other formatives of the verb zagt, which are the recent entries in the Historical Dictionary of Latvian (LVVV), are discussed, paying attention to how these entries are made and what problems the authors of the LVVV meet. The verb zagt (compare with Lithuanian žàgti), often used in the written sources of 16th–17th centuries, is at the basis of the word zaglis, and, for example, substantives zādzība, zadzējs, zagšana, adjective zadzīgs, adverb zagšu. These derivatives are mostly mentioned in the 17th-century dictionaries. In the early texts, only substantives zaglis and zādzība are often used. LVVV also has an entry of the reflexive verb zagties, as well as apzagties, sazagties, nozagties. The prefixed verbs derived from the verb zagt have the largest diversity; they are mainly used in the dictionary of Ch. Fürecker, for example, aizzagt, apzagt, nozagt, pazagt, pārzagt, sazagt etc. The semantics of these verbs is a difficult task for the authors of the LVVV. The basic word zagt is not characterised by semantic diversity; in the early texts, it is most often used in the concrete meaning ‘to steal’, also common for today’s user of Latvian, similarly to the word zaglis ‘thief’.The word zagt is common already in the texts at the end of the 16th century; it is often used in the religious texts of the 17th century and in the translation of the Bible – most often in the well-known context of the commandmend “Tev nebūs zagt” (You shall not steal). In the Bible, an extraordinary word group zagt sirdi ‘to steal the heart’ is used, supposedly, with a meaning ‘to cheat, to deceive’. The word zaglis in early Latvian texts has several characteristic word groups, for example, kā zaglis naktī ‘as a thief in the night’, zagļi un slepkavas ‘thieves and murderers’, an idiom karsts zaglis ‘hot thief’, also a proverb “Zaglis dabū zagļa algu” (A thief gets thief’s pay) is often used. The derivatives of the verb zagt (zagšu, nozagties) have a meaning connected with a secret action and movement; in modern Latvian, it is characteristic of the reflexive verb zagties ‘to steal, to sneak’. Also, the word groups, for example, kā zaglis ‘as a thief’ or kā zaglis naktī ‘as a thief in the night’, have this shade of meaning ‘secretely, unnoticed, stealthily’. Such semantic parallels of the verbs zagt, zagties (taking another person’s property/secret action, movement) are characteristic of many Indo-European languages.

Latvian reflexive verbs with paš- ‘self-’

The article addresses Latvian reflexive verbs with the derivational formant paš- ‘self-’. Paš- is the stem of the emphatic pronoun pats, meaning ‘oneself, by oneself, on one’s own’; thus, verbs derived with paš- are classified as compound verbs. A mass media database search yielded 150 reflexive verbs derived with paš-. Reflexive verbs without paš- include both subjective and objective reflexive verbs. However, in case of inanimate subjects, the semantics of paš- increases the agent’s volition and facilitates personification, allowing the interpretation of most paš-compound reflexive verbs as subjective reflexive verbs. Since the productivity of paš- is generally dominant in nominal derivation, in addition to these verbal derivations, there are 95 paš-compound reflexive action nouns that are not attested in their verbal forms. For non-reflexive action nouns, paš- may serve to express reflexivity and thus semantic differentiation between reflexive and non-reflexive action nouns is neutralized. Overall, the analysed derivatives represent the semantic interaction of reflexivity and emphatic meaning, as well as intersection of verbal and nominal derivation.

Рефлексия в хакасском языке: структура и семантика

This study determines the structural and semantic features of the reflexive (reflexive voice) in Khakass, taking into account the peculiarities of the Turkic conceptualization of the reflexivity semantics in the language. The paper considers the aspects of the study of the voice category in the theory of linguistics and presents the discussion of linguists regarding the nature of the reflexive. It is indicated that a reflexive verb in the Khakass language denotes the active action of its agent, i.e., the source and the object of the action. It is shown that reflexive is formed from transitive and intransitive verbs with agentive semantics. The following basic signs of reflexivity are defined: agentivity, abstractness, intransitivity, and semi-transitivity. The main semantic types of reflexive in the Khakass language have been revealed, including the medial, partitive-reflexive, total, benefactive, autocausative, and decausative. The study results are as follows: 1) the meaning of the reflexive in the Khakass language does not go beyond its semantic limits in other languages; 2) modification of active verbs into the reflexive causes a full or partial generalization of action; 3) a partial generalization maintains the action transitivity to the object that is in a possessive relationship with the subject, creating a reflexive verb of activity; 4) a complete generalization makes the action intransitive, forming a reflexive verb of quality; 5) the reflexive meaning can be supplemented with active one. The work was performed with data from the Electronic Corpus of the Khakass language and personal fieldwork data.

러시아어 중간문의 의미와 범위에 관한 연구 : 조력적 중간문을 중심으로

Middle voice is a construction that is difficult to define from the viewpoint of the voice as a dual system with passive and active constructions. Middle constructions are classified into several detailed semantic types. Among them, facilitative middles are the subject of this study. Facilitative middles in Russian mainly present the degree to which the object of the underlying transitive verb (promoted to the position of syntactic subject) is likely to be put into action. Therefore, the facilitative middles consist of a subject (the object of the underlying transitive verb), a present tense form of a reflexive verb derived from an imperfective transitive verb, and generic agent that is not explicitly expressed. In addition, many middle constructions combine with adverbial phrases of manner that indicate how an action is carried out.BR This study examines the semantic and structural properties of facilitative middles in Russian, focusing on subject, verb, agent, and adverbial phrases, and analyzes the attributes of Russian facilitative middles through comparison with related constructions. The findings and conclusions are as follows.BR First, the typical attributive meaning of facilitative middles is derived from the specific tense aspect form of the verb, namely the present imperfective verb form. Thus, when the verb tense is changed to the past, the possibility and potential of the action is weakened and when the aspect of the verb is changed to the perfective, the genericity and conventionality of the action disappear, consequently shifting to the interpretation of anticausative constructions.BR Second, while generic agents cannot be specified and are only implied, non-generic agents can be specified through the “у” prepositional phrase. However, in this case, the cause of and responsibility for the action performed can be ascribed to the agent expressed through the prepositional phrase, not the subject; hence, the sentence obtains an interpretation similar to the passive.BR Third, facilitative middles have modal meanings of potential and possibility in the sense that the object is likely to be subjected to an action. In particular, facilitative middles combine with various adverbial phrases with manner meanings.BR Finally, there are the similar constructions that promote arguments other than the object of the underlying transitive verb as the subject. These are instrument-subject constructions and antipassive. These constructions are formed from a much narrower range of verbs than middle constructions. Therefore, the Russian middles are closely related to the passive, anticausative, antipassive, instrument-subject constructions and generalized personal constructions in accordance with the tense aspect form of verb, the genericity of the agent and the semantic role of the subject, among others.

Grammatical Features of the Moscow Edition of the Trebnik in the Middle of the 17th Century (on the Material of a Comparative Study of Trebnik by Nikon in 1658 and Trebnik by Peter Mohyla in 1646)

The paper studies the grammar features that characterize the Moscow revision of the Book of Needs (Trebnik), composed under patriarch Nikon (1658). The research is based on a comparison of Nikon’s and Peter Mogila’s (1646) Trebniks. The study confirmed the scientific statement that Nikonian editors revised the Trebnik in accordance with the recommendations of the Moscow edition of M. Smotritsky’s Grammar. This is shown, for example, in the use of certain endings in the nominal and adjective declension and of the imperative indicator (in the verbs of the first conjugation in the 1st and 2nd persons of the plural). The emergence of hyper-correct phenomena points at to obligatory character of the corrections. One of the main directions of the Nikonian edition was the elimination of grammatical variability and homonymy. To this end, editors fixed one form for expressing grammatical meaning in those cases when the grammar allowed variations, for example, the use of the ending -ѣхъ in the local masculine and neuter plurals, the elimination of the enclitic forms of personal pronouns in the dative case in the adnominal position and their replacement by possessive pronouns, the use of reflexive verbs to express passive in place of combinations of passive participles with the verb byti (быти).

Omissions and Overgeneralizations of Reflexive Clitic in the Acquisition of Reflexive Constructions in Croatian as L1

Verb constructions with a reflexive marker are termed “reflexive constructions”. Reflexive constructions in language acquisition research have been studied mainly within a formal theoretical framework while focusing on developmental differences in comprehension of syntactically bound or free pronominal elements. The present study aimed to determine the acquisition pathway of reflexive constructions in Croatian by examining the errors that children produce in early stages of acquisition. Correct and erroneous reflexive verb constructions were extracted from the spontaneous language production of three children previously recorded and transcribed for the Croatian Corpus of Child Language (Kovačević 2003). Errors were classified as omissions or overgeneralizations and further analyzed with respect to the type of reflexive construction, the complexity of the verb’s argument structure and consistency between the reflexive marker and verb. The results showed that children initially omitted the reflexive marker, then gradually introduced it into their production, occasionally overextending its use and thus producing overgeneralization errors. With age they became more successful in producing reflexive constructions. Consistent use of a reflexive marker alongside the verb in child-directed speech influenced the error rates in different types of reflexive constructions, while potential influence of the complexity of argument structure needs to be studied further.

БЪЛГАРСКИТЕ ДЕЗИДЕРАТИВНИ ГЛАГОЛИ И ТЕХНИТЕ УКРАИНСКИ СЪОТВЕТСТВИЯ В ПАРАЛЕЛЕН КОРПУС / BULGARIAN DESIDERATIVE VERBS AND THEIR UKRAINIAN COUNTERPARTS IN A PARALLEL CORPUS

All uses of Bulgarian desiderative verbs of the type «glagoli» ‹ми› се ‘feel like ‹verb›ing’ (e. g., спи ми се ‘be sleepy’, работи ми се ‘feel like working, be in a mood for work’) and their prefixed phase derivatives were excerpted from a parallel corpus of Bulgarian and Ukrainian fictional texts. In the corresponding Ukrainian sentences, the specific semantics of the construction is most often expressed either by an independent lexical item – the verb хотітися ‘want, feel like’ or хотіти ‘want’ – or by a combination of a reflexive verb and an optional dative experiencer, as in (мені) працюється ‘I want to work, feel like working; I work eagerly; my work is going well’. The latter counterpart is of particular interest due to its structural similarity to the Bulgarian desiderative verbs. The comparison shows that the constructions in the two closely related languages are considerably different in meaning (which is the reason why this correspondence is only the third most frequent) and that although they have a lot in common (as attested by their lexical diversity), translators tend to overestimate the degree of similarity between them. Keywords: Bulgarian language, desideratives, dispositional constructions, reflexive–dative constructions, Ukrainian language

Kazimiero Jauniaus Lietùviškas Kalbomõkslis. Baltiko padangese (1897) – Jono Jablonskio Lietuviškos kalbos gramatikos (1901) šaltinis

LIETÙVIŠKAS KALBOMÕKSLIS. BALTIKO PADANGESE (1897) BY KAZIMIERAS JAUNIUS – THE SOURCE OF LIETUVIŠKOS KALBOS GRAMATIKA (1901) BY JONAS JABLONSKIS S u m m a r y The main source of Jonas Jablonskis’ Lietuviškos kalbos gramatika (Grammar of the Lithuanianlanguage, Tilsit, 1901 [JaG]), signed under the pseudonym of Petras Kriaušaitis, is PetrasAvižonis’ Liėtùviška Gramatiklė (Small Lithuanian Grammar, [Petersburg, 1898] [AvG]). However, Jablonskis significantly supplemented AvG by adding the chapters on preposition, conjunction, interjection, syntax and orthography. He also separated the descriptions of noun and adjective, added chapters on phonetics, pronoun, numeral, verb, used Lithuanian language terms. Jablonskis did not indicate other sources in JaG, fragments of the text taken from other works are not identified as such. However, later Jablonskis wrote that he also used Kazimieras Jaunius’ Lietùviškas kalbomõkslis. Baltiko padangese (Lithuanian Grammar. In the Baltic Skies, [Dorpat,] 1897 [JaunK]). The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between these two grammars. Some of the material for JaG was undoubtedly taken over directly from JaunK, for it was not present in AvG or other grammars that Jablonskis could have used. However, Avižonis also used JaunK, so some fragments entered JaG through AvG, rather than directly from JaunK. Since Jablonskis took over AvG almost in its entirety, there is no doubt such fragments of JaunK had previously been incorporated in AvG only to later appear in JaG. All the more so as JaunK’s statements and examples are equally reformulated, supplemented or abbreviated in AvG and JaG. The article analyses only the material that was taken over to JaG directly from JaunK and that was not present in AvG. It is much more difficult to identify the source of the fragments which are found in both JaunK and Friedrich Kurschat’ Grammatik der Littauischen Sprache (Grammar of the Lithuanian language, Halle, 1876 [KG]). It is not always clear whether Jablonskis took it directly from KG or through JaunK. In such cases, the immediate context is considered. When not only the idea of KG but also more material, adjacent sentences, are taken over from the same section of JaunK, the path of the fragment is considered to be KG → JaunK → JaG. The connection between JaunK and JaG is also evidenced by the uniform wording of sentences. In his grammar, Jablonskis stated that he supported character <tš> [č], proposed by Jaunius, as well as orthography of nom. pl. of i, u stems with endings ‑įs, ‑ųs. JaunK could also have influenced the spelling of the numerals trįs ‘three’, keturiasdešimtas–devyniasdešimtas ‘fortieth—ninetieth’. Jablonskis used Jaunius’ terms būdvardis ‘adjective’, veiksmažodis ‘verb’, prieveiksmis ‘adverb’,jausmažodis ‘interjection’; linksnis ‘case’, linksniavimas ‘declination’, dvilypuotieji būdvardžiai ‘pronominal adjectives’, tikrieji ‘quantitative’ and paeiliniai ‘ordinal’ (numerals), sakomasis būdas ‘mood’, savyveiksmis ‘reflexive verb, form’, nestati, nestačioji kalba ‘indirect speech’. Fragments of JaunK about the concept and types of sounds have been taken over to the JaG. JaG material on consonant assimilation also has connection with JaunK. Jablonskis also used JaunK while preparing the chapter of morphology. There are connections in the definition of adjective, the description of category of number of nouns, pronominal adjectives and gradation of adjectives. There are also identical statements about the declension of numerals and their semantic groups in JaunK and JaG. According to JaunK, the definition of the pronoun was formulated in JaG. Jablonskis also used JaunK to describe verbs, adverbs, and interjection. In the chapter of the syntax, the influence of JaunK can be seen in the description of the use of participants. Jablonskis used the linguistic material, examples of JaunK. Jablonskis used the data of dialects, mostly Samogitians, provided by JaunK. Comments on the grades of adjectives, variants of pronouns, forms of future tense, use of adverbs, as well as lexical variants are related to JaunK. In summary, the direct influence of JaunK can be registered in slightly less than a quarter (48 out of 224) of JaG’s paragraphs.

Functioning of the verb’s reflexive voice in the modern Udmurt language

Introduction. Any language’s verb system has many resources for denoting various actions of people. The relations of the action or state of the subject to its object are determined by the grammatical category of the voice, represented in the Udmurt language by the pairs of causative – non-causative, reflexive – non-reflexive forms of voices. The article considers the functioning of the verb’s reflexive voice in the modern Udmurt language, including the etymology of the voice’s affix, the grammatical meanings of reflexive verbs. Materials and Methods. The main material of the research is based on the Udmurt-Russian Dictionary (2008) and the texts of Udmurt writers included into the National Corpus of the Udmurt Language. The article used a set of such research methods as descriptive, continuous sampling, contextual analysis, taking into account the situational conditioning of the verb voice. On specific examples, the use of these methods makes it possible to consider the structure, dynamics and features of the functioning of the reflexive voice of the verb in the Udmurt language. Results and Discussion. As a result of the research, for the first time, among the reflexive voice’s groups we include verbs of passive voice. The reason of it is the low probability of using passive constructions in colloquial speech. The frequent cases of using passive meanings of verbs in the literature and in the press are defined by the calcified translation of foreign-language constructions. Conclusion. The grammatical structure of the Udmurt language is represented by two binary voice’s forms: reflexive/non-reflexive voice and causative/non-causative voice. Specific indicators of reflexive voice are affixes -ськ(ы)-/-ск(ы), -иськ(ы)-/-üськ(ы)-. From the point of view of semantic content, five semantic groups of returnable pledges are distinguished: reflexive, medial, reciprocal, impersonal, passive. The proposed classification is determined by the specifics of the relations between the subject and the object of action.

Emotive verbs of the Russian language in the semantic and grammatical aspect

The article is devoted to the consideration of the lexical-grammatical and semantic features of converting pairs of emotive verbs in the Russian language such as “To be angry - to anger, to worry - to excite, to be embarrassed - to embarrass, to be furious - to enrage”. These verbs form an opposition having a grammatical, derivational and semantic character. In terms of the semantic relationship, the transitive verb is more complex, since it contains “causation”, while the formal relationship, on the contrary, means greater complexity of the reflexive verb, which has a postfix “-Sya”.The constitutive semantic features of emotive verbs of the Russian language are “unintentional action”, “focus on the object” (for a transitive verb) and self-isolation (reflexive verb), the ability to describe an emotional state, emotional experience, emotional attitude.

Darinājumu ligzda ar pamatvārdu gādāt senajos latviešu rakstu avotos

In the article, the verb gādāt, an entry for the Historical Dictionary of Latvian (16th–17th centuries), and other formatives with this word are discussed. In the early Latvian texts, a wide and forked word-formation nest forms around the verb gādāt, including, for example, derived words gādāties, negādāt, gādāšana, apgādāt, apgādāties, apgādāšana, atsagādāties, iesagādāties, atgādāt, atgādāties, atgādāšana, atgādināt, iegādāties, sagādāt, sagāds, gāds, gādība, etc. There are several meanings of the word gādāt in early texts, which differ from the ones used nowadays, so the authors of the Dictionary have distinguished three of them: 1) to aim, seek, strive (for something); 2) to take care, to look after; 3) to be concerned, to worry (about). The word gādāt also had a more ancient meaning, ‘to think’, from which these three meanings have developed. Though in early religious texts the meaning ‘to think’ is not common, it appears in some prefixal verbs, for example, apgādāt ‘to consider’, iesagādāties ‘to come to one’s mind’, atgādāt ‘to recall, to remember’, sagādāt ‘to consider, to think’, iegādāt ‘to remember, to recall’. The meanings of the basic word also widely fork in the meanings of the words derived from it. One group of meanings is connected with the ancient meaning of the word gādāt ‘to think’. It is dominant, for example, in such word-formation chain as atgādāt, atgādināt, atgādāšana, etc., while the other group is connected to the meaning ‘to care, to look after’. The last is more common nowadays, so the words gādāt, apgādāt, sagādāt, gādība, etc. are known with this meaning also in modern Latvian. In the texts of the 16th–17th centuries, reflexive verbs are often used; an interesting feature characteristic to these verbs – the reflexive verb is often used in the same meaning as the direct verb. For example, gādāt and gādāties, iegādāt and iegādāties, atgādāt and atgādāties.

"Unity in thinking: transformations of the concept of cooperation in the German cognitive-linguistic continuum"

The work is an attempt to consider the concept of “cooperation” in cognitive-linguistic terms, taking as a syntagmatic basis “thinking”, which contains the motivating feature of the primary basis: the cognitive verb denken [think]. The term “semantic function” is one of the main terms in the work: this function acts as a stimulus for semantic transformation and the formation of a new semantic quality. The aim of the research is to analyze different semantic transformations in: 1. Formation of a derivative prefixed verb mitdenken. 2. Formation of the reflexive verbs sich einigen and sich sammeln. 3. Formation of the construction “adverb and cognitive verb”: miteinanderdenken/ zusammendenken / gemeinsamdenken. 4. Formation of the construction “preposition, pronoun and cognitive verb”: mit anderen erarbeiten. Through the method of componential analysis, the work presents lexemes, morphemes and functional words referring to the same semantic field.

Tendencies in modern verbal derivation

The article examines various types of verbal neologisms functioning in modern Russian speech. The aim of the research is to reveal the tendencies of verbal derivation at the turn and at the beginning of the 21st century. It is noted that verb vocabulary is regularly enriched by neologisms of different structural types despite the fact that this part of speech is less open to neologization. It has been demonstrated that suffixation, prefixation, and postfixation (grammatical suffixation) are the most productive processes of derivation. The following tendences of modern verbal derivation have been revealed: intensive formation of new verbs via borrowing from foreign languages; expansion of denominative derivation of verbs; an increase in the number of reflexive verbs expressing various aspects of subject-object relations. It is concluded that verbal neologisms are consistently used not only in media language, but also in the language of modern fiction where they enhance its expressiveness and imagery.