Refined Palm Oil Research Articles

CRYSTALLIZATION TEMPERATURE AND SOLVENT COMPOSITION EFFECT FOR ENHANCEMENT OF UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS FROM PALM OIL USING UREA COMPLEXATION

Mono and Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFAs/PUFAs) are vital nutritional sources for infants, adults, and the elderly. The content of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) can be enhanced in vegetable oils or animal fats using a range of different techniques. The process of urea complexation is highly effective and efficient for concentrating monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) from vegetable oils. This study employed refined palm oil as the raw material that went through saponification and purification processes in order to generate fatty acids mixture. Subsequently, urea was introduced to create a complex chemical in the form of urea complexed fraction (UCF) and leaving the non-urea complexed fraction (NUCF). Gas chromatography was employed to analyze the fatty acid composition obtained from urea complexation. This study investigated the impact of different crystallization temperatures (-4°C, 8°C, 12°C, 22°C, and 30°C) and ethanol concentrations (ranging from 0% to 100%) on enhancing the unsaturated content and yield of fatty acids derived from palm oil. It also conducted predictive equations to determine the yield and fatty acids composition in the non-urea complexed fraction (NUCF) which are important for separation process design in chemical industries. The study revealed that increasing the crystallization temperature resulted in a larger yield in the liquid fraction (NUCF), but a lower concentration of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs).

Infant Food Flours Made from Local Products to Combat Acute Malnutrition in Children Under 5 Years Old in Côte D’ivoire

In Côte d'Ivoire, recurring stock shortages and difficulties in accessing specialized food products compromise nutritional treatment. This study proposes food formulas of flours composed of locally available products capable of meeting the protein-energy needs of children aged 6 to 59 months diagnosed with moderate acute malnutrition. The methodological approach consists of formulating and determining the physicochemical, nutrient, and functional characteristics of four new formulations (1F, 2F, 3F, 4F, and 5F). The results indicate that the formulated foods have high levels of calcium (215.60-252,29 mg/100g MS), potassium (555,70-789,29 mg/100 g MS), magnesium (261,26-200,63 mg/100g MS), iron (4,86-7,03 mg/100g MS) and phosphorus (392,36 -469,36 mg/100g MS). The fat content varies from 9.66% to 23.86%. The energy value determined for all flours corresponds well to the Codex. The food formulas developed would also be able to meet more than 100% of the daily requirement of vitamins E and B1. The phytate (180.26 - 227.05 mg/100 g) and oxalate (66.00 - 88.00 mg/100 g) contents are low. The presence of phenolic compounds, including flavonoids (7.78-15.44 mg/100 g) and antioxidant activity (31.09-32.84%) would be a significant asset. The levels of deoxynivalenol (62 μg/kg) recorded in flours are below 200 μg/kg recommended for infants and young children. The proposed formulations have high-water absorption capacity (136.15 -252.94%) and high solubility index (56.84 -59.2%). The wettability time ranges from 3.66 ± 0.16 s to 33.71 ± 0.23 s. Flours (1F, 2F, 3F, 5F) have a better absorption capacity for refined palm oil (132 %, 139 %, 121 %; 115 %). The proposed new formulations have nutritional characteristics close to standard data and could therefore be recommended for children aged 6 to 59 months for complementary feeding in the context of the fight against moderate acute malnutrition.

Perception, Knowledge, and Consumption Potential of Crude and Refined Palm Oil in Brazilian Regions.

Crude palm oil (CPO) is the most produced vegetable oil globally, with Brazil contributing only 0.74% of global production. Pará and Bahia account for more than 82% of Brazil's output. Despite its widespread use in the food industry after refining, there is little research on CPO consumption and perception in Brazil, particularly regarding its nutritional aspects. This study, conducted between March and July 2022, explored Brazilians' perceptions and the potential for CPO consumption. The results show that most participants are unfamiliar with CPO but view its nutrients favorably. Less than half regularly purchase CPO. Refined palm oil (RPO) is even less known, with many unaware that refining CPO can produce carcinogenic substances. The respondents showed little concern about RPO in their foods, rarely noticing its presence on labels. Despite limited knowledge, participants understand that refining reduces CPO's health benefits, leading to a greater preference for crude oil over refined oil. This study highlights the need for better dissemination of information about CPO in Brazil, emphasizing its nutritional benefits and the importance of adhering to daily lipid intake limits. Adding CPO at the end of cooking or consuming it raw to preserve thermosensitive compounds is also recommended.

Current status of Indonesia’s palm oil products and their competitiveness in the global market

Abstract Oil palm is recognised as contributing significantly to crucial economic growth in Indonesia. Still, it is often considered a severe threat to tropical forest ecosystems due to the large amount of forest conversion for oil palm cultivation. Also, oil palm business and marketing processes have many opportunities and challenges. In response, this research examines and reveals in depth the current state of Indonesia’s palm oil business and marketing in the global market. By interviewing, reviewing the literature, and conducting a stakeholder analysis, we found that Indonesia has high competition for global palm oil, with processed products such as Refined Palm Oil and Oleochemical Mix dominating the world market and high export value growth. However, the export value for crude oil, such as palm oil and palm kernel oil, in 2020 - 2021 is low due to government policies for downstream and industrialisation programs. The government, as policymakers, the oil palm funding agency (BPDPKS), and the oil palm companies are key players with high interest and influence in the sustainable development of the oil palm business. European Union and Press can be context setters with low interest but high influence on business and marketing processes in Indonesia.

TRADITIONAL STEPS OF PALM OIL (Elaeis guineensis) PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA

This review examines the local steps that are involved in the palm oil production in Nigeria, which includes; harvesting palm fruits from palm trees, collecting the bunches of palm fruits to a spot, splitting the palm fruits bunches into smaller pieces known as spikelets, removal of palm fruits from spikelets, boiling of the palm fruits to soften its mesocarp, removal and grinding the palm fruits mesocarp from its endocarp, separation of palm oil from other constituents, heating the crude palm oil to obtain refined palm oil, packaging the palm oil in various sizes of sealed containers such as plastic container. Local technique of palm oil production is cheap and readily available, but it comes with poor yield. However, modern technique (the use of machine) is expensive, though, but it makes the process easier and faster, and enhances commercial palm oil production.

Pencucian Crude Palm Oil (CPO) untuk Mitigasi Penurunan 3-MCPDE dan GE pada Pemurnian Minyak Sawit

Crude palm oil (CPO) purification aims to remove or degrade unwanted components such as free fatty acids (FFA), phospholipids, impurities, color pigments, metals, and odors. The CPO purification generally consists of degumming, bleaching, and deodorization process. During the stages, some undesirable compounds are formed, including 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol ester (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl ester (GE). The main precursors responsible for formation of the two compounds are chlorides and acyl glycerol fractions, especially diacylglycerol (DAG) and this occurs high temperatures in the deodorization process. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce their precursors in order to supress the contaminants. To cope with the problem, a washing process of CPO was proposed as an extra process before a purification stage. The washing process was carried out in two ways, namely wet washing by using water, and dry washing by using bleaching earth (BE) by 2 types of commercial BE (natural and acid activated). Washing processes using wet and dry washing (natural and activated BE) showed comparable effectiveness in reducing 3-MCPDE and GE levels in refined palm oil. As a result, the process successfully reduced 3-MCPDE content to comply with a standard Commission Regulation (EU) 2020/1332, but GE content did not conform to standard.

Application of rotating cone reactor for continuous biodiesel production: Effect of cone geometry and optimization of operating variables through response surface methodology (RSM)

The work developed a rotating cone reactor (RCR) as a promising multifunctional reactor for continuous biodiesel production from refined palm oil (RPO) homogeneously catalysed by NaOH. The effects of rotating cone geometry, rotational speed, catalyst amount, and reactant feed flow rate on FAME yield were investigated. Response surface methodology (RSM) and the Design Expert software were used to optimize the operating variables. The grooved cone surface was found to play an important role in increasing FAME yield. The model predicted a maximum FAME yield of 96.9 % at the process conditions of NaOH loading of 0.602 wt.% of oil, a feed flow rate of 298 mL/min, and a rotational speed of 751 rpm. It provided a high yield efficiency of 1.324 × 10−3 g/J and a high productivity of 0.715 mol/min at a very short residence time of 2 – 3 s. This resulted in a significant reduction in transesterification time, suggesting that the RCR is a promising multifunctional reactor for economical continuous biodiesel production.

Biodiesel production from refined palm oil through transesterification: effect in a pilot thermal plant

This article presents the biodiesel production process from refined palm oil (RPO) through transesterification with ethanol and investigates its impact on a pilot thermal plant, encompassing both physical and environmental characterizations. The study adheres to the ASTM D 6751 standard, which delineates specifications for non-fossil origin fuels. The results indicate that biodiesel derived from RPO, when mixed with diesel in various proportions, exhibits significant potential, as its properties align with quality standards, particularly concerning power generation and gas emissions in the pilot thermal plant at ECCI University.

Study of the effectiveness of the drug Laennek in case of liver damage by palm oil in rats

Palm oil is a component of most food products, characterized by a high content of palmitic and oleic acids, an excess of which leads to the formation of tripalmitins, practically do not respond to enzymatic hydrolysis by lipoprotein lipase and predetermine the development of obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus and atherosclerosis. This paper presents the results of a study of the drug Laennek, produced on the basis of standardized hydrolysates of the human placenta (HRP). The use of HRP under the influence of excessive consumption of palm oil in the diet led to a significant decrease in markers of liver dysfunction (ALT), which increase with an enriched diet of refined palm oil (bilirubin, total protein, ALT, AST). The hepatoprotective effect of Laennek was confirmed by the results of histological and biochemical studies indicating a decrease in the severity and prevalence of fatty liver dystrophy.

Cooperative Catalytic Transfer for One-Pot Hydrolysis/Hydrogenation of Refined Palm Oil Using Formic Acid as a Hydrogen Source

Cooperative Catalytic Transfer for One-Pot Hydrolysis/Hydrogenation of Refined Palm Oil Using Formic Acid as a Hydrogen Source

The Green Mirage: The EU’s Complex Relationship with Palm Oil Biodiesel in the Context of Environmental Narratives and Global Trade Dynamics

In the early 2000s, biofuels like biodiesel and bioethanol were seen as renewable alternatives to petroleum, driven by rising crude oil prices and environmental concerns. Palm oil became a key biodiesel raw material, turning the European Union (EU) into a major importer. However, sustainable palm oil concerns emerged in the EU in 2014, leading to trade disputes and import restrictions, with a goal to phase out palm oil biodiesel by 2030. This research explores the EU’s palm oil biodiesel policy impact, focusing on key producers, EU imports (crude and refined palm oil, biodiesel), the EU’s role in the global biodiesel network, and alignment with a green narrative. Analyzing trade data, we find that, despite concerns, the EU has not significantly reduced palm oil-related imports, highlighting the market’s complex relationship to policy. This suggests that the EU’s commitment to environmentally sustainable economic development may not align with market stakeholders’ preferences, emphasizing the complex interdependencies between the global biodiesel market and policy areas like sustainability, economy, energy, and environment.

Enhancing biodiesel production in stirred tank reactors through the implementation of a baffle array: Creating a reactor with unique characteristics

This study focuses on enhancing biodiesel production from expired refined palm oil by implementing baffle arrays with a suitable dimension ratio into a conventional stirred tank reactor. This reactor functions as a deglycerolizing reactor at low agitation speeds (250 rpm), or an intensive mixing at high agitation speeds (500 rpm). With these unique characteristics, this reactor outperformed its traditional counterparts and could produce biodiesel via a simplified, single-step transesterification process. The optimal reaction condition was 1:6 oil to MeOH ratio, 1.0 wt% KOCH3, 30-minute reaction time and 60 °C reaction temperature. Ester content of 98.13 wt% was obtained in the deglycerolizing reactor and 98.54 wt% in the intensive mixing reactor with the number of baffles of 16. This achievement represents a 50 % reaction time reduction and 30 % reactor cost reduction compared to the conventional reactor with similar reaction condition and production capability.

Interesterified palm oil promotes insulin resistance and altered insulin secretion and signaling in Swiss mice

Interesterified fats have been used to replace trans-fat in ultra-processed foods. However, their metabolic effects are not completely understood. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the effects related to glucose homeostasis in response to interesterified palm oil or refined palm oil intake. Four-week-old male Swiss mice were randomly divided into four experimental groups and fed the following diets for 8 weeks: a normocaloric and normolipidic diet containing refined palm oil (PO group) or interesterified palm oil (IPO group); a hypercaloric and high-fat diet containing refined PO (POHF group) or interesterified PO (IPOHF group). Metabolic parameters related to body mass, adiposity and food consumption showed no significant differences. As for glucose homeostasis parameters, interesterified palm oil diets (IPO and IPOHF) resulted in higher glucose intolerance than unmodified palm oil diets (PO and POHF). Euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp assessment showed a higher endogenous glucose production in the IPO group compared with the PO group. Moreover, the IPO group showed significantly lower p-AKT protein content (in the muscle and liver tissues) when compared with the PO group. Analysis of glucose-stimulated static insulin secretion (11.1 mmol/L glucose) in isolated pancreatic islets showed a higher insulin secretion in animals fed interesterified fat diets (IPO and IPOHF) than in those fed with palm oil (PO and POHF). Interesterified palm oil, including in normolipidic diets, can impair insulin signaling in peripheral tissues and increase insulin secretion by β-cells, characterizing insulin resistance in mice.

Two-stage reaction rates in transesterification of palm oil with methanol catalysed by anion-exchange resin with tetrahydrofuran as a co-solvent

Several heterogeneous catalysts have been proposed as recoverable catalysts for transesterification in place of homogeneous hydroxide or methoxide. Anion-exchange resin is a potential recoverable and reusable catalyst but its industrial use is still barred by its low catalytic activity. Transesterification of refined palm oil with methanol catalysed by anion-exchange resin was studied. A phenomenon limiting the reaction rates was discovered and is presented. Two types of anion-exchange resins were used as the catalysts: dense IRA402 and macroporous A26. With IRA402, an oil conversion of only 6.1 % was obtained from 4 h transesterification at 60 °C with a methanol-to-oil molar ratio of 9.5:1 and 4 cm3 resin per 42 cm3 reaction mixture. Severe mass transfer resistance in this three-phase system appeared to be the limiting factor. Addition of tetrahydrofuran (THF) as a co-solvent helped form a single liquid phase. The oil conversion was improved to 19.3 %. The reaction between oil and adsorbed methoxide at resin’s ion-exchange sites seemed to be the rate-determining step. When A26 was used, the rate of FAME production was boosted due to the porous nature of the resin. Nevertheless, the reaction rate fell sharply after a while into a slower second stage. The formation of a secondary liquid phae in resin pores triggered by glycerol generation was proposed as the cause of this drop in the reaction rate. A higher oil conversion of 63.4 % was obtained. Diluting the reaction mixture with more THF eliminated the slower second stage and sustained the firststage’s faster reaction rate. An oil conversion of 84.7 % was achieved from 3 h transesterification. A finite-volume model was developed to simulate the reaction and internal mass transport in A26 resin beads. The proposed secondary liquid phase formation and a branching pore structure in resin beads were required in the model to reproduce experimental data. The findings suggested improvement directions for anion-exchange resin as a catalyst for transesterification.

Effects of oxidative degradation on the single-droplet burning behavior of refined palm and Jatropha curcas oil

To clarify the effect of oxidative degradation of vegetable oils on their droplet combustion behaviors, a single-droplet combustion experiment was carried out. Refined palm oil (RPO) and Jatropha curcas oil (JCO) were used as representative vegetable oils. First, these vegetable oils were oxidatively degraded for 12 h by the Rancimat method to produce degraded RPO (RPO12) and JCO (JCO12), respectively. The effects of degradation on fuel properties were evaluated in terms of the kinematic viscosity and fatty acid composition, which were measured with an Ubbelohde viscometer and GC–MS, respectively. The results revealed that JCO was more susceptible to oxidative degradation and its kinematic viscosity significantly increased after degradation. This was due to its high content of unsaturated fatty acids, such as oleic and linoleic acids. Then, single-droplet combustion experiments were performed at 0.1 MPa and 1023 K. A droplet with a diameter of approximately 0.5 mm was inserted into an electric furnace and spontaneously ignited. Puffings were observed under all conditions, regardless of fresh or degraded RPO and JCO. The puffing periods of RPO12 and JCO12 were longer than those of RPO and JCO due to the longer time from bubble expansion to droplet disruption. Furthermore, the change in the droplet diameter caused by droplet disruption was suppressed for JCO12 and RPO12, which was probably attributed to the increased kinematic viscosity. Finally, the diameter of secondary droplet released by the droplet disruption was explored. The average diameters of secondary droplet of RPO12 and JCO12 were larger than those of RPO and JCO, and this was probably because of the increase in surface tension. Novelty and Significance StatementThe novelty of this study is that a series of experiment, i.e., production of oxidatively degraded vegetable oils, fuel property analysis (viscosity measurement and fatty acid composition analysis), and droplet combustion experiment, were simultaneously carried out. Thus, effects of oxidative degradation on combustion behavior were systematically clarified for the first time. This study is significant in that it provides the knowledge on treating vegetable oils in internal combustion engines, which is necessary for realizing a carbon neutral society.

The Potency of Olive Oil, Coconut Oil, and Bleached Palm Oil as Clearing Agent in Histological Preparation

Clearing is an important process in histological preparations. The aim of the clearing process is to remove alcohol from the tissues upon dehydration. The most commonly used clearing agent is xylol, however it is known that there are negative effects from using xylol. This literature study purpose to study the potential of three vegetable oils, i.e., olive oil, coconut oil, and refined palm oil, as clearing agents to replace xylol. This literature study was conducted using search engines such as Semantic Scholar, NCBI, ICAMS, IJPRSE, JOMFP, PubMed, and ResearchGate with the keywords olive oil, coconut oil, palm oil, xylol, clearing agent, and histological preparations. There is no year limitation of references in this literature study. Based on the literatures, it is known that the use of olive oil as a clearing agent produces similar histological preparation qualities to xylol. This can be seen from several criteria that were measured, including the level of tissue translucency and the ability to maintain the quality of the staining. Similar results were shown by purified coconut oil and palm oil, both of which can produce tissues with optimal levels of transparency. The conclusion from this literature study is that refined olive oil, coconut oil, and palm oil can be used as clearing agents for xylol substitutes that are safer for researchers and the environment.

Effects of Microencapsulated Blend of Organic Acids and Pure Botanicals on the Ruminal Microbiota in an In Vitro Dual-Flow Continuous Culture System

The objective of the study was to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation of a microencapsulated blend of organic acids and pure botanicals (mOAPBs) on the solid- and liquid-associated microenvironment (SAM and LAM, respectively) of the ruminal microbiome using an in vitro dual-flow continuous culture system. Ruminal content was incubated in eight fermenters and the basal diet was supplemented with increasing levels of mOAPBs (0; 0.12; 0.24; or 0.36% DM) which contained 55.6% hydrogenated and refined palm oil, 25% citric acid, 16.7% sorbic acid, 1.7% thymol, and 1% vanillin. All diets had a similar nutritional composition (16.1 CP, 30.9 NDF, and 32.0 starch, % DM basis). After 7 days of adaptation, a pooled sample across the days was collected in each period for identification of the microbiome of SAM and LAM. There was no effect of mOAPB on alpha-, beta-diversity, and microbial abundance. The SAM had a greater bacterial diversity and the principal component analysis demonstrated that it had a divergent bacterial profile from LAM. Additionally, SAM had an increased abundance of carbohydrate-degrading microorganisms. In summary, mOAPBs did not modulate the ruminal microbiome. The microenvironment microbiome of solid- and liquid-associated microenvironments were different, with SAM having a greater carbohydrate-degrading microorganism population.

Blood lipid profiles, fatty acid deposition and expression of hepatic lipid and lipoprotein metabolism genes in laying hens fed palm oils, palm kernel oil, and soybean oil.

The palm oil, palm kernel oil and soybean oil have unique and distinctive fatty acid chain length and saturation profiles, and how they affect lipid peroxidation, fatty acid intake and metabolism is worth exploring in poultry. This study elucidated the influence the dietary oils on lipid peroxidation, blood lipid profiles, fatty acid deposition of liver, serum and yolk and the expression of liver genes related to lipid and lipoprotein metabolism in laying hens. About 150 Hisex brown laying hens were fed diets containing crude palm oil (CPO), red palm oil (RPO), refined palm oil (RBD), palm kernel oil (PKO) or soybean oil (SBO) for 16 weeks. Serum, liver and yolk lipid peroxidation were not different between dietary oils. The PKO increased liver, serum and yolk medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA). There was no difference in liver saturated fatty acids (SFA). The CPO and RPO reduced serum SFA, but the PKO increased yolk SFA. The SBO increased polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in liver serum and yolk. No difference in liver elaidic acid (C18:1-trans), but SBO lowered elaidic acid (C18:1-trans) in serum. Higher very-low density lipoprotein (VLDL) in CPO than RPO and SBO and greater serum lipase in CPO, RBD and PKO than SBO. There was no difference in sterol regulatory element-binding protein 2 (SREBP-II) between oils. Apolipoprotein VLDL-II (APOVLDL2) was upregulated in palm oils and apolipoprotein B-100 (APOB) in RBD. Downregulation in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-α), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) and low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) was observed in palm oils and PKO. In conclusion, different dietary oils greatly influence several aspects of fatty acid metabolism, deposition and lipoprotein profiles but have no influence on reducing lipid peroxidation.

Fabrication of glutathione-modified gold nanoparticles as 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol sensor

Refined palm oil products may contain a harmful substance called as 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD), which can potentially be carcinogenic if consumed in excess. The determination of 3-MCPD depends on the sophisticated machine and highly skilled technicians but it is time-consuming. A simple method that proposes rapid detection remains a challenge. Hence, this research aims to develop a colorimetric-based rapid detection sensor using gold nanoparticles functionalized with a ligand, glutathione (GSH) to be bound to 3-MCPD. Varied concentrations of GSH were evaluated to obtain stable GSH-AuNPs. The characterization results showed that the composition of the stable GSH-AuNPs has been achieved by 250 µL of 0.02 M GSH addition. A stable GSH-AuNPs was ruby red with surface plasmon resonance (SPR) band at 520 nm and an average nanoparticle size of 30 nm. The indication for detection of 3-MCPD was marked by the decrease in the absorbance intensity. Thus, GSH-AuNPs have potential to be developed for the 3-MCPD sensor application.

Antioxidant Enzyme System Modulation by Dietary Palm Oils, Palm Kernel Oil and Soybean Oil in Laying Hens.

Palm-based oils (palm oil and kernel oil) and soybean oil have unique fatty acid and antioxidant profiles based on the compounds present in them. Hence, this study elucidated the antioxidant properties of crude palm oil (CPO), red palm oil (RPO), refined palm oil (RBD), palm kernel oil (PKO) and soybean oil (SBO) and the influence of dietary oils on blood lipid profiles, tissue fatty acid deposition and the expression of hepatic lipid and lipoprotein metabolism genes in laying hens. The oils were analyzed for color, beta-carotene, free fatty acid and acid value, phenolic content and lipid peroxidation. In an in vivo trial, 150 laying hens were allotted into five groups and supplemented with either CPO, RPO, RBD, PKO or SBO for 16 weeks. High antioxidant compounds present in palm oils help reduce the oxidation of oils. Dietary supplementation with palm oils, particularly CPO and RPO, contributed to the lower liver, serum and jejunal mucosal antioxidant enzyme activities. The antioxidant enzyme genes in the jejunal mucosa were downregulated in palm oils and PKO, but there was no difference between oils in antioxidant enzyme genes in the liver. In conclusion, dietary supplementation with oils with high antioxidant content contributed to protection against oxidation and was associated with a lower requirement for producing antioxidant enzymes.