Reference Dosimetry Measurements Research Articles

ACPSEM position paper: dosimetry for magnetic resonance imaging linear accelerators

Consistency and clear guidelines on dosimetry are essential for accurate and precise dosimetry, to ensure the best patient outcomes and to allow direct dose comparison across different centres. Magnetic Resonance Imaging Linac (MRI-linac) systems have recently been introduced to Australasian clinics. This report provides recommendations on reference dosimetry measurements for MRI-linacs on behalf of the Australiasian College of Physical Scientists and Engineers in Medicine (ACPSEM) MRI-linac working group. There are two configurations considered for MRI-linacs, perpendicular and parallel, referring to the relative direction of the magnetic field and radiation beam, with different impacts on dose deposition in a medium. These recommendations focus on ion chambers which are most commonly used in the clinic for reference dosimetry. Water phantoms must be MR safe or conditional and practical limitations on phantom set-up must be considered. Solid phantoms are not advised for reference dosimetry. For reference dosimetry, IAEA TRS-398 recommendations cannot be followed completely due to physical differences between conventional linac and MRI-linac systems. Manufacturers’ advice on reference conditions should be followed. Beam quality specification of TPR20,10 is recommended. The configuration of the central axis of the ion chamber relative to the magnetic field and radiation beam impacts the chamber response and must be considered carefully. Recommended corrections to delivered dose are {k}_{{Q}_{msr}{Q}_{0}}^{{f}_{msr}{f}_{ref}}, a correction for beam quality and {k}_{overrightarrow{B},{Q}_{msr}}^{{f}_{msr}}, for the impact of the magnetic field on dosimeter response in the magnetic field. Literature based values for {k}_{overrightarrow{B},{Q}_{msr}}^{{f}_{msr}} are given. It is important to note that this is a developing field and these recommendations should be used together with a review of current literature.

AAPM WGTG51 Report 374: Guidance for TG-51 reference dosimetry.

Practical guidelines that are not explicit in the TG-51 protocol and its Addendum for photon beam dosimetry are presented for the implementation of the TG-51 protocol for reference dosimetry of external high-energy photon and electron beams. These guidelines pertain to:(i)measurement of depth-ionization curves required to obtain beam quality specifiers for the selection of beam quality conversion factors, (ii)considerations for the dosimetry system and specifications of a reference-class ionization chamber, (iii)commissioning a dosimetry system and frequency of measurements, (iv)positioning/aligning the water tank and ionization chamber for depth ionization and reference dose measurements, (v)requirements for ancillary equipment needed to measure charge (triaxial cables and electrometers) and to correct for environmental conditions, and (vi)translation from dose at the reference depth to that at the depth required by the treatment planning system. Procedures are identified to achieve the most accurate results (errors up to 8% have been observed) and, where applicable, a commonly used simplified procedure is described and the impact on reference dosimetry measurements is discussed so that the medical physicist can be informed on where to allocateresources.

IPEM code of practice for high-energy photon therapy dosimetry based on the NPL absorbed dose calibration service

The 1990 code of practice (COP), produced by the IPSM (now the Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine, IPEM) and the UK National Physical Laboratory (NPL), gave instructions for determining absorbed dose to water for megavoltage photon (MV) radiotherapy beams (Lillicrap et al ). The simplicity and clarity of the 1990 COP led to widespread uptake and high levels of consistency in external dosimetry audits. An addendum was published in 2014 to include the non-conventional conditions in Tomotherapy units. However, the 1990 COP lacked detailed recommendations for calibration conditions, and the corresponding nomenclature, to account for modern treatment units with different reference fields, including small fields as described in IAEA TRS483 (International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) , Vienna). This updated COP recommends the irradiation geometries, the choice of ionisation chambers, appropriate correction factors and the derivation of absorbed dose to water calibration coefficients, for carrying out reference dosimetry measurements on MV external beam radiotherapy machines. It also includes worked examples of application to different conditions. The strengths of the 1990 COP are retained: recommending the NPL2611 chamber type as secondary standard; the use of tissue phantom ratio (TPR) as the beam quality specifier; and NPL-provided direct calibration coefficients for the user’s chamber in a range of beam qualities similar to those in clinical use. In addition, the formalism is now extended to units that cannot achieve the standard reference field size of 10 cm × 10 cm, and recommendations are given for measuring dose in non-reference conditions. This COP is designed around the service that NPL provides and thus it does not require the range of different options presented in TRS483, such as generic correction factors for beam quality. This approach results in a significantly simpler, more concise and easier to follow protocol.

The effect of the horizontal metallic drive on reference dosimetry in the SNC 3D scanner water tank.

Accurate quantification of absorbed radiation dose is important for safe and effective delivery of radiation therapy. An important aspect to this is reference dosimetry, which is performed under reference conditions specified by international codes of practice. Such measurements are usually performed in a water phantom. In the Sun Nuclear Corporation (SNC) three‐dimensional (3D) scanner water tank system the detector holder is fixed to a horizontal metallic drive rail (MDR) which is in close proximity to the active volume of the detector. In this project, the dosimetric effects of the MDR on reference dosimetry were investigated for MV photons, MeV electrons, and kV photons by comparing reference dosimetry measurements in the SNC 3D scanner against similar measurements in a Standard Imaging (SI) one‐dimensional (1D) tank and against measurements in the SNC 3D scanner with an additional, custom‐made spacer placed beneath the chamber holder to increase the chamber ‐ MDR separation. A second experiment investigated the difference in chamber reading dependent on chamber to MDR separation by fixing the chamber in the tank independently of the MDR and successively moving the MDR vertically to alter the separation. The results showed that measurements in the SNC 3D scanner agree with both SI 1D tank and SNC 3D scanner with spacer to within ±0.3% for MV photons, ±0.1% for electrons and ±1.2% for kV photons within the calculated setup uncertainty. The second experiment showed that the contribution of backscatter from the MDR was significant if the distance between MDR and chamber was reduced below the chamber's designed position in the SNC 3D scanner. The exception was for kV photons where the contribution of backscatter from the MDR was measured to be 0.5% at the designed distance. Further investigation would be useful for kV photons, where the experiment showed relatively large measurement uncertainties.

A modified formalism for electron beam reference dosimetry to improve the accuracy of linac output calibration.

To present and demonstrate the accuracy of a modified formalism for electron beam reference dosimetry using updated Monte Carlo calculated beam quality conversion factors. The proposed, simplified formalism allows the use of cylindrical ionization chambers in all electron beams (even those with low beam energies) and does not require a measured gradient correction factor. Data from a previous publication are used for beam quality conversion factors. The formalism is tested and compared to the present formalism in the AAPM TG-51 protocol with measurements made in Elekta Precise electron beams with energies between 4MeV and 22MeV and with fields shaped with a 10×10cm2 clinical applicator as well as a 20×20cm2 clinical applicator for the 18MeV and 22MeV beams. A set of six ionization chambers are used for measurements (two cylindical reference-class chambers, two scanning-type chambers and two parallel-plate chambers). Dose per monitor unit is derived using the data and formalism provided in the TG-51 protocol and with the proposed formalism and data and compared to that obtained using ionization chambers calibrated directly against primary standards for absorbed dose in electron beams. The standard deviation of results using different chambers when TG-51 is followed strictly is on the order of 0.4% when parallel-plate chambers are cross-calibrated against cylindrical chambers. However, if parallel-plate chambers are directly calibrated in a cobalt-60 beam, the difference between results for these chambers is up to 2.2%. Using the proposed formalism and either directly calibrated or cross-calibrated parallel-plate chambers gives a standard deviation using different chambers of 0.4%. The difference between results that use TG-51 and the primary standard measurements are on the order of 0.6% with a maximum difference in the 4MeV beam of 2.8%. Comparing the results obtained with the proposed formalism and the primary standard measurements are on the order of 0.4% with a maximum difference of 1.0% in the 4MeV beam. The proposed formalism and the use of updated data for beam quality conversion factors improves the consistency of results obtained with different chamber types and improves the accuracy of reference dosimetry measurements. Moreover, it is simpler than the present formalism and will be straightforward to implement clinically.

Feasibility Study of a Small Field Detector Based on a Microfluidic Calorimeter

The widespread proliferation of modern external beam radiotherapy devices employing small or non-standard fields has created a number of challenges for accurate reference dosimetry measurements based on ionization chambers, as they require an ever increasing number of corrections. A miniature water-based calorimeter, on the other hand, would allow for direct measurement of absorbed dose to water that can be traced to standards entirely independent of radiation. In this study, a microfluidic calorimeter prototype developed at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology was assessed for its feasibility as a detector for measurement of absolute dose to water in small and composite fields. Using the GEANT4 Monte Carlo simulation toolkit, the detector design was examined for the water equivalence and the angular dependence of the absorbed dose to the active calorimeter volume inside three different radiation fields. The initial design exhibited poor water equivalence but this was remedied through a simple modification to the detector geometry. The modified design was subsequently re-tested and it showed a maximum water equivalence deviation of 1.15% while angular fluctuations remained within 1.1%, thus indicating that the modified microfluidic calorimeter is a promising concept for the construction of a calorimeter-based absorbed dose to water detector for absolute dosimetry.

A formalism for reference dosimetry in photon beams in the presence of a magnetic field

A generic formalism is proposed for reference dosimetry in the presence of a magnetic field. Besides the regular correction factors from the conventional reference dosimetry formalisms, two factors are used to take into account magnetic field effects: (1) a dose conversion factor to correct for the change in local dose distribution and (2) a correction of the reading of the dosimeter used for the reference dosimetry measurements. The formalism was applied to the Elekta MRI-Linac, for which the 1.5 T magnetic field is orthogonal to the 7 MV photon beam. For this setup at reference conditions it was shown that the dose decreases with increasing magnetic field strength. The reduction in local dose for a 1.5 T transverse field, compared to no field is 0.51% ± 0.03% at the reference point of 10 cm depth. The effect of the magnetic field on the reading of the dosimeter was measured for two waterproof ionization chambers types (PTW 30013 and IBA FC65-G) before and after multiple ramp-up and ramp-downs of the magnetic field. The chambers were aligned perpendicular and parallel to the magnetic field. The corrections of the readings of the perpendicularly aligned chambers were 0.967 ± 0.002 and 0.957 ± 0.002 for respectively the PTW and IBA ionization chambers. In the parallel alignment the corrections were small; 0.997 ± 0.001 and 1.002 ± 0.003 for the PTW and IBA chamber respectively. The change in reading due to the magnetic field can be measured by individual departments. The proposed formalism can be used to determine the correction factors needed to establish the absorbed dose in a magnetic field. It requires Monte Carlo simulations of the local dose and measurements of the response of the dosimeter. The formalism was successfully implemented for the MRI-Linac and is applicable for other field strengths and geometries.

Electron beam water calorimetry measurements to obtain beam quality conversion factors.

To provide results of water calorimetry and ion chamber measurements in high-energy electron beams carried out at the National Research Council Canada (NRC). There are three main aspects to this work: (a) investigation of the behavior of ionization chambers in electron beams of different energies with focus on long-term stability, (b) water calorimetry measurements to determine absorbed dose to water in high-energy beams for direct calibration of ion chambers, and (c) using measurements of chamber response relative to reference ion chambers, determination of beam quality conversion factors, kQ , for several ion chamber types. Measurements are made in electron beams with energies between 8MeV and 22MeV from the NRC Elekta Precise clinical linear accelerator. Ion chamber measurements are made as a function of depth for cylindrical and plane-parallel ion chambers over a period of five years to investigate the stability of ion chamber response and for indirect calibration. Water calorimetry measurements are made in 18MeV and 22MeV beams. An insulated enclosure with fine temperature control is used to maintain a constant temperature (drifts less than 0.1mK/min) of the calorimeter phantom at 4°C to minimize effects from convection. Two vessels of different designs are used with calibrated thermistor probes to measure radiation induced temperature rise. The vessels are filled with high-purity water and saturated with H2 or N2 gas to minimize the effect of radiochemical reactions on the measured temperature rise. A set of secondary standard ion chambers are calibrated directly against the calorimeter. Finally, several other ion chambers are calibrated in the NRC 60 Co reference field and then cross-calibrated against the secondary standard chambers in electron beams to realize kQ factors. The long-term stability of the cylindrical ion chambers in electron beams is better (always <0.15%) than plane-parallel chambers (0.2% to 0.4%). Calorimetry measurements made at 22MeV with two different vessel geometries are consistent within 0.2% after correction for the vessel perturbation. Measurements of absorbed dose calibration coefficients for the same secondary standard chamber separated in time by 10yr are within 0.2%. Drifts in linac output that would affect the transfer of the standard are mitigated to the 0.1% level by performing daily ion chamber normalization measurements. Calibration coefficients for secondary standard ion chambers can be achieved with uncertainties less than 0.4% (k=1) in high-energy electron beams. The additional uncertainty in deriving calibration coefficients for well-behaved chambers indirectly against the secondary standard reference chambers is negligible. The kQ factors measured here differ by up to 1.3% compared to those in TG-51, an important change for reference dosimetry measurements. The measurements made here of kQ factors for eight plane-parallel and six cylindrical ion chambers will impact future updates of reference dosimetry protocols by providing some of the highest quality measurements of this crucial dosimetric parameter.

Consequences of air around an ionization chamber: Are existing solid phantoms suitable for reference dosimetry on an MR-linac?

A protocol for reference dosimetry for the MR-linac is under development. The 1.5 T magnetic field changes the mean path length of electrons in an air-filled ionization chamber but has little effect on the electron trajectories in a surrounding phantom. It is therefore necessary to correct the response of an ionization chamber for the influence of the magnetic field. Solid phantoms are used for dosimetry measurements on the MR-linac, but air is present between the chamber wall and phantom insert. This study aimed to determine if this air influences the ion chamber measurements on the MR-linac. The absolute response of the chamber and reproducibility of dosimetry measurements were assessed on an MR-linac in solid and water phantoms. The sensitivity of the chamber response to the distribution of air around the chamber was also investigated. Measurements were performed on an MR-linac and replicated on a conventional linac for five chambers. The response of three waterproof chambers was measured with air and with water between the chamber and the insert to measure the influence of the air volume on absolute chamber response. The distribution of air around the chamber was varied indirectly by rotating each chamber about the longitudinal chamber axis in a solid phantom and a water phantom (waterproof chambers only) and measuring the angular dependence of the chamber response, and varied directly by displacing the chamber in the phantom insert using a paper shim positioned at different orientations between the chamber casing and the insert. The responses of the three waterproof chambers measured on the MR-linac were 0.7%-1.2% higher with water than air in the chamber insert. The responses of the chambers on the conventional linac changed by less than 0.3% when air in the insert was replaced with water. The angular dependence of the chambers ranged from 0.6% to 1.9% in the solid phantom on the MR-linac but was less than 0.5% in water on the MR-linac and less than 0.3% in the solid phantom on the conventional linac. Inserting a shim around the chamber induced changes of the chamber response in a magnetic field of up to 2.2%, but the change in chamber response on the conventional linac was less than 0.3%. The interaction between the magnetic field and secondary electrons in the air around the chamber reduces the charge collected from 0.7% to 1.2%. The large angular dependence of ion chambers measured in the plastic phantom in a magnetic field appears to arise from a change of air distribution as the chamber is moved within the insert, rather than an intrinsic isotropy of the chamber sensitivity to radiation. It is recommended that reference dosimetry measurements on the MR-linac can be performed only in water, rather than in existing plastic phantoms.

Polarity effects and apparent ion recombination in microionization chambers.

Microchambers demonstrate anomalous voltage-dependent polarity effects. Existing polarity and ion recombination correction factors do not account for these effects. As a result, many commercial microchamber models do not meet the specification of a reference-class ionization chamber as defined by the American Association of Physicists in Medicine. The purpose of this investigation is to determine the cause of these voltage-dependent polarity effects. A series of microchamber prototypes were produced to isolate the source of the voltage-dependent polarity effects. Parameters including ionization-chamber collecting-volume size, stem and cable irradiation, chamber assembly, contaminants, high-Z materials, and individual chamber components were investigated. Measurements were performed with electrodes coated with graphite to isolate electrode conductivity. Chamber response was measured as the potential bias of the guard electrode was altered with respect to the collecting electrode, through the integration of additional power supplies. Ionization chamber models were also simulated using comsol Multiphysics software to investigate the effect of a potential difference between electrodes on electric field lines and collecting volume definition. Investigations with microchamber prototypes demonstrated that the significant source of the voltage-dependent polarity effects was a potential difference between the guard and collecting electrodes of the chambers. The voltage-dependent polarity effects for each prototype were primarily isolated to either the guard or collecting electrode. Polarity effects were reduced by coating the isolated electrode with a conductive layer of graphite. Polarity effects were increased by introducing a potential difference between the electrodes. comsol simulations further demonstrated that for a given potential difference between electrodes, the collecting volume of the chamber changed as the applied voltage was altered, producing voltage-dependent polarity effects in the chamber response. Ionization chamber measurements and comsol simulations demonstrated an inverse relationship between the chamber collecting volume size and the severity of voltage-dependent polarity effects on chamber response. The effect of a given potential difference on chamber polarity effects was roughly ten times greater for microchambers as compared to Farmer-type chambers. Stem and cable irradiations, chamber assembly, contaminants, and high-Z materials were not found to be a significant source of the voltage-dependent polarity effects. A potential difference between the guard and collecting electrodes was found to be the primary source of the voltage-dependent polarity effects demonstrated by microchambers. For a given potential difference between electrodes, the relative change in the collecting volume is smaller for larger-volume chambers, illustrating why these polarity effects are not seen in larger-volume chambers with similar guard and collecting electrode designs. Thus, for small-volume chambers, it is necessary to reduce the potential difference between the guard and collecting electrodes in order to reduce polarity effects for reference dosimetry measurements.

Reference dosimetry on TomoTherapy: an addendum to the 1990 UK MV dosimetry code of practice

The current UK code of practice for high-energy photon therapy dosimetry (Lillicrap et al 1990 Phys. Med. Biol. 35 1355–60) gives instructions for measuring absorbed dose to water under reference conditions for megavoltage photons. The reference conditions and the index used to specify beam quality require that a machine be able to set a 10 cm × 10 cm field at the point of measurement. TomoTherapy machines have a maximum collimator setting of 5 cm × 40 cm at a source to axis distance of 85 cm, making it impossible for users of these machines to follow the code. This addendum addresses the specification of reference irradiation geometries, the choice of ionization chambers and the determination of dosimetry corrections, the derivation of absorbed dose to water calibration factors and choice of appropriate chamber correction factors, for carrying out reference dosimetry measurements on TomoTherapy machines. The preferred secondary standard chamber remains the NE2611 chamber, which with its associated secondary standard electrometer, is calibrated at the NPL through the standard calibration service for MV photon beams produced on linear accelerators with conventional flattening filters. Procedures are given for the derivation of a beam quality index specific to the TomoTherapy beam that can be used in the determination of a calibration coefficient for the secondary standard chamber from its calibration certificate provided by the NPL. The recommended method of transfer from secondary standard to field instrument is in a static beam, at a depth of 5 cm, by sequential substitution or by simultaneous side by side irradiation in either a water phantom or a water-equivalent solid phantom. Guidance is given on the use of a field instrument in reference fields.

Microionization chamber air‐kerma calibration coefficients as a function of photon energy for x‐ray spectra in the range of 20–250 kVp relative to 60Co

To investigate the applicability of a wide range of microionization chambers for reference dosimetry measurements in low- and medium-energy x-ray beams. Measurements were performed with six cylindrical microchamber models, as well as one scanning chamber and two Farmer-type chambers for comparison purposes. Air-kerma calibration coefficients were determined at the University of Wisconsin Accredited Dosimetry Calibration Laboratory for each chamber for a range of low- and medium-energy x-ray beams (20-250 kVp), with effective energies ranging from 11.5 keV to 145 keV, and a (60)Co beam. A low-Z proof-of-concept microchamber was developed and calibrated with and without a high-Z silver epoxy on the collecting electrode. All chambers composed of low-Z materials (Z ≤ 13), including the Farmer-type chambers, the scanning chamber, and the PTW TN31014 and the proof-of-concept microchambers, exhibited air-kerma calibration coefficients with little dependence on the quality of the beam. These chambers typically exhibited variations in calibration coefficients of less than 3% with the beam quality, for medium energy beams. However, variations in air-kerma calibration coefficients of greater than 50% were measured over the range of medium-energy x-ray beams for each of the microchambers containing high-Z collecting electrodes (Z > 13). For these high-Z chambers, which include the Exradin A14SL and A16 chambers, the PTW TN31006 chamber, the IBA CC01 chamber, and the proof-of-concept chamber containing silver, the average variation in air-kerma calibration coefficients between any two calibration beams was nearly 25% over the entire range of beam qualities investigated. Due to the strong energy dependence observed with microchambers containing high-Z components, these chambers may not be suitable dosimeters for kilovoltage x-ray applications, as they do not meet the TG-61 requirements. It is recommended that only microchambers containing low-Z materials (Z ≤ 13) be considered for air-kerma calibrations for reference dosimetry in low- and medium-energy x-ray beams.

SU-E-T-294: Maximizing the Availability of Positron Emitting Nuclei for Proton Therapy Verification Using Different Beam Irradiation Sequences.

To demonstrate that the amount of nuclei available for post- irradiation proton treatment verification using positron emission tomography (PET) can be enhanced by reversing the beam delivery sequence in proton scanning beam irradiations. A time-dependent analytical model is used to calculate the distributions of positron emitting nuclei for three different irradiation sequences: a scattered beam and a scanning beam in both the conventional sequence, distal edge first, and reverse sequence, distal edge last. The simulated geometry emulates reference dosimetry measurements conducted at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI). The reference measurements irradiate a 10 ×10 cm2 field, delivering about 1 Gy to a 10 cm wide spread-out Bragg peak (SOBP). Positron emitter availability with different beam sequence and imaging times and the impact of the different irradiation sequences on the statistical error on a range extrapolation were investigated. The ratio of the amount of positron emitters from the distal last beam sequence to that from the distal first sequence was 2.22 in the last centimeter of the SOBP. The comparison between distal last and a scattered beam gave a ratio of about 1.7 in the same region. In the distal last irradiation, more isotopes decay within a 120 second window, than in a 240 second window using a distal first irradiation. The statistical fluctuation on a range extrapolation was also smallest in the distal last beam sequence. We demonstrated the effect of the irradiation beam sequence on the isotope production relevant for the verification of proton spot scanning therapy with PET. The largest amount of isotopes is available by irradiating the distal edge last. This new beam sequence reduces the PETmeasurement time while still offering higher counts and accuracy compared with both the conventional beam sequence and the scattering method. This project was supported by JSPS Core-to-Core Program.

TH-E-BRB-06: Characterization of Microionization Chambers for Small-Field Reference Dosimetry

Purpose: Microchambers demonstrate anomalous behaviors not seen in larger-volume chambers. The purpose of this work is to perform an evaluation of several cylindrical microchambers to assess these performance issues and limitations through measurements of chamber response as a function of bias voltage and Monte Carlo transport in the presence of strong electric fields. Methods: Measurements were performed with five cylindrical microchambers, one scanning chamber, and two Farmer-type chambers. The response of each chamber to 60Co radiation was measured at opposing polarities for applied voltages between (10–600) V. Chamber reproducibility and polarity correction factors were evaluated. Ion recombination correct factors were calculated using several techniques accounting for initial and general ion recombination, ion diffusion, and charge multiplication. The electric field in each chamber was modeled using COMSOL Multiphysics Software and the data was exported and integrated into EGSnrc. Results: All microchambers displayed unique sets of saturation curves, which varied from chamber to chamber, even within chamber models. Ion recombination correction factors were inconsistent depending on the calculation technique used (with variations > 2%) and often fell below unity. Polarity correction factors were > 0.3% from unity and strongly voltage dependent. The responses of several microchambers varied inversely with the magnitude of the applied voltage, which may be due to strong electric fields in the presence of high-Z materials. To investigate the effect of the bias voltage, the transport of charged particles in the presence of calculated and COMSOL-generated electric fields was benchmarked against analytical calculations. Conclusions: Unlike the larger-volume chambers, each microchamber displayed a unique set of saturation curves highlighting several anomalous characteristics unique to microchambers. These results demonstrate that conventional TG-51 corrections may not be appropriate for reference dosimetry measurements. A technique was developed to investigate these behaviors using EGSnrc electric field simulations.

Reference radiochromic film dosimetry in kilovoltage photon beams during CBCT image acquisition

A common approach for dose assessment during cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) acquisition is to use thermoluminescent detectors for skin dose measurements (on patients or phantoms) or ionization chamber (in phantoms) for body dose measurements. However, the benefits of a daily CBCT image acquisition such as margin reduction in planning target volume and the image quality must be weighted against the extra dose received during CBCT acquisitions. The authors describe a two-dimensional reference dosimetry technique for measuring dose from CBCT scans using the on-board imaging system on a Varian Clinac-iX linear accelerator that employs the XR-QA radiochromic film model, specifically designed for dose measurements at low energy photons. The CBCT dose measurements were performed for three different body regions (head and neck, pelvis, and thorax) using humanoid Rando phantom. The authors report on both surface dose and dose profiles measurements during clinical CBCT procedures carried out on a humanoid Rando phantom. Our measurements show that the surface doses per CBCT scan can range anywhere between 0.1 and 4.7 cGy, with the lowest surface dose observed in the head and neck region, while the highest surface dose was observed for the Pelvis spot light CBCT protocol in the pelvic region, on the posterior side of the Rando phantom. The authors also present results of the uncertainty analysis of our XR-QA radiochromic film dosimetry system. Radiochromic film dosimetry protocol described in this work was used to perform dose measurements during CBCT acquisitions with the one-sigma dose measurement uncertainty of up to 3% for doses above 1 cGy. Our protocol is based on film exposure calibration in terms of "air kerma in air," which simplifies both the calibration procedure and reference dosimetry measurements. The results from a full Monte Carlo investigation of the dose conversion of measured XR-QA film dose at the surface into dose to water (or water kerma) at the surface of the phantom indicate that, for typical beam qualities used in CBCT, this conversion can be approximated by simple mass-energy absorption coefficient ratios water-to-air.

A dosimetric evaluation of water equivalent phantoms for kilovoltage x-ray beams

Solid phantoms are widely used in radiation therapy for both relative and reference dosimetry. Two water equivalent phantoms, RMI-457 Solid Water and Plastic Water, were evaluated for use in kilovoltage x-ray dosimetry in the energy range from 75 to 300 kVp. Relative and reference dosimetry measurements were performed in the solid phantoms and compared with water. The results indicate that RMI-457 Solid Water could be used for output factor determination for all energies tested and the measurement of percentage depth doses for the 300 kVp x-ray beam, with data agreeing to within 1%, compared to the same measurements in water. For the same criteria, Plastic Water could only be used for output factor determination of the 300 kVp x-ray beam. The superior agreement of the calculated mass–energy absorption coefficients for Solid Water and water, as compared to Plastic Water and water was consistent with the experimental results. Reference dosimetry is not recommended with the solid phantoms for the energies studied due to the lack of published correction factors. It is recommended that any solid phantom be tested by comparison with water in the same manner before being used for the dosimetry of kilovoltage x-ray beams.

Personnel Neutron Dosimetry Improvements at Los Alamos National Laboratory

Methods are being investigated to improve neutron dosimety at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) using the etched track dosemeter CR-39. Specifically, use of CR-39 for dynamic environments, typically encountered at the LANL Plutonium Facility, is shown to be a superior method for personnel neutron dosimetry when compared to the currently used TLD system. The results of glovebox experiments simulating hydrogenous shielding used at LANL, temporal variations of neutron correction factors used at the Plutonium Facility, trial implementation at this facility and preliminary neutron spectroscopy measurements are presented and compared to reference dosimetry measurements. The results confirm that use of a TLD system in a facility implementing hydrogenous shielding requires frequent field recalibration. When such correction factors are not re-evaluated frequently, or are maintained at pre-shielding levels, significant (i.e. 2- to 3-fold) overestimation of the neutron dose equivalent can occur.

Personnel Neutron Dosimetry Improvements at Los Alamos National Laboratory

Abstract Methods are being investigated to improve neutron dosimety at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) using the etched track dosemeter CR-39. Specifically, use of CR-39 for dynamic environments, typically encountered at the LANL Plutonium Facility, is shown to be a superior method for personnel neutron dosimetry when compared to the currently used TLD system. The results of glovebox experiments simulating hydrogenous shielding used at LANL, temporal variations of neutron correction factors used at the Plutonium Facility, trial implementation at this facility and preliminary neutron spectroscopy measurements are presented and compared to reference dosimetry measurements. The results confirm that use of a TLD system in a facility implementing hydrogenous shielding requires frequent field recalibration. When such correction factors are not re-evaluated frequently, or are maintained at pre-shielding levels, significant (i.e. 2- to 3-fold) overestimation of the neutron dose equivalent can occur.

Experimental qualification of a code for optimizing gamma irradiation facilities

Dose computation codes are a prerequisite for the design of gamma irradiation facilities. Code quality is a basic factor in the achievement of sound economic and technical performance by the facility. This paper covers the validation of a code by reference dosimetry experiments. Developed by the “Société Générale pour les Techniques Nouvelles” (SGN), a supplier of irradiation facilities and member of the CEA Group, the code is currently used by that company. (ERHART, KERARON, 1986) Experimental data were obtained under conditions representative of those prevailing in the gamma irradiation of foodstuffs. Irradiation was performed in POSEIDON, a Cobalt 60 cell of ORIS-I. Several Cobalt 60 rods of known activity are arranged in a planar array typical of industrial irradiation facilities. Pallet density is uniform, ranging from 0 (air) to 0.6. Reference dosimetry measurements were performed by the “Laboratoire de Métrologie des Rayonnements Ionisants” (LMRI) of the “Bureau National de Métrologie” (BNM). The procedure is based on the positioning of more than 300 ESR/alanine dosemeters throughout the various target volumes used. The reference quantity was the absorbed dose in water. The code was validated by a comparison of experimental and computed data. It has proved to be an effective tool for the design of facilities meeting the specific requirements applicable to foodstuff irradiation, which are frequently found difficult to meet.