Redundant Color Research Articles

Multi-parameter optical performance monitoring based on single-channel convolutional neural network

For the first time, a combination of grayscale maps and single-channel convolutional neural networks (CNN) is used in the direct detection optical performance monitoring (OPM) technique. Due to the faster monitoring speed of the direct detection OPM technique, it is very suitable for intermediate nodes of optical networks. The OPM technique proposed in this paper is an improvement based on the previous asynchronous delay-tap plot (ADTP) techniques. By reducing the redundant color channel information, the training process of the ADTP feature-based monitoring model is improved. In the simulation stage, three high-order modulated signals, 16quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), 32QAM and 64QAM, are used as sample signals. The ADTP color maps, ADTP pseudo-color maps and ADTP grayscale maps generated by these three modulated signals with different signal-to-noise ratios and cumulative dispersion (CD) are collected. The accuracy of the monitoring model based on these three feature maps is close to 100% for both cumulative dispersion identification and signal modulation formats identification (MFI). However, the monitoring models based on grayscale maps and pseudo-color maps perform slightly better in estimating optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) compared to the monitoring models based on color maps. And the grayscale map-based model slightly outperforms the other two models in terms of training complexity and monitoring speed. The superiority of grayscale maps and single-channel convolutional neural networks compared to previous ADTP-based OPM techniques is demonstrated.

Linguistic Redundancy and its Effects on Younger and Older Adults' Real-Time Comprehension and Memory.

Redundant modifiers can facilitate referential interpretation by narrowing attention to intended referents. This is intriguing because, on traditional accounts, redundancy should impair comprehension. Little is known, however, about the effects of redundancy on older adults' comprehension. Older adults may show different patterns due to age-related decline (e.g., processing speed and memory) or their greater proclivity for linguistic redundancy, as suggested in language production studies. The present study explores the effects of linguistic redundancy on younger and older listeners' incremental referential processing, judgments of informativity, and downstream memory performance. In an eye tracking task, gaze was monitored as listeners followed instructions from a social robot referring to a unique object within a multi-object display. Critical trials were varied in terms of modifier type ("…closed/purple/[NONE] umbrella") and whether displays contained another object matching target properties (closed purple notebook), making modifiers less effective at narrowing attention. Relative to unmodified descriptions, redundant color modifiers facilitated comprehension, particularly when they narrowed attention to a single referent. Descriptions with redundant state modifiers always impaired real-time comprehension. In contrast, memory measures showed faster recognition of objects previously described with redundant state modifiers. Although color and state descriptions had different effects on referential processing and memory, informativity judgments showed participants perceived them as informationally redundant to the same extent relative to unmodified descriptions. Importantly, the patterns did not differ by listener age. Together, the results show that the effects of linguistic redundancy are stable across adulthood but vary as a function of modifier type, visual context, and the measured phenomenon.

Software Information Hiding Algorithm Based on Palette Icon of PE File

PE (Portable executable) file is a standard format for executable file and is applied extensively. PE file has diversity, uncertainty of file size, complexity of file structure and singleness of file format, which make PE file easy to be a carrier of information hiding, especially for that of large hiding capacity. A novel software information hiding algorithm is proposed, which makes full use of display characteristics of palette icon of portable executable file. In this algorithm, the information is embedded into the transparent area of the icon by taking advantage of the redundant color items in the palette. The experimental results show that after embedding the information, the size of the icon remains unchanged, that is, the size of the resource section will not change, and the size of the PE file will not change. On the other hand, the icon with embedded data can be correctly analyzed and displayed without any distortion. PE file can run normally, and does not affect the performance of the program, so the algorithm has good concealment. The algorithm selects an index value whose color is black according to rules in the XOR bitmap, these index values are encoded for information hiding, its complexity is low. At the same time, we can further improve the hiding capacity by adding one or more icons to PE file.

Color discriminability makes over-specification efficient: Theoretical analysis and empirical evidence

A psychophysical analysis of referential communication establishes a causal link between a visual stimulus and a speaker’s perception of this stimulus, and between the speaker’s internal representation and their reference production. Here, I argue that, in addition to visual perception and language, social cognition plays an integral part in this complex process, as it enables successful speaker-listener coordination. This pragmatic analysis of referential communication tries to explain the redundant use of color adjectives. It is well documented that people use color words when it is not necessary to identify the referent; for instance, they may refer to “the blue star” in a display of shapes with a single star. This type of redundancy challenges influential work from cognitive science and philosophy of language, suggesting that human communication is fundamentally efficient. Here, I explain these seemingly contradictory findings by confirming the visual efficiency hypothesis: redundant color words can facilitate the listener’s visual search for a referent, despite making the description unnecessarily long. Participants’ eye movements revealed that they were faster to find “the blue star” than “the star” in a display of shapes with only one star. A language production experiment further revealed that speakers are highly sensitive to a target’s discriminability, systematically reducing their use of redundant color adjectives as the color of the target became more pervasive in a display. It is concluded that a referential expression’s efficiency should be based not only on its informational value, but also on its discriminatory value, which means that redundant color words can be more efficient than shorter descriptions.

Speakers and listeners exploit word order for communicative efficiency: A cross-linguistic investigation.

Pragmatic theories and computational models of reference must account for people's frequent use of redundant color adjectives (e.g., referring to a single triangle as "the blue triangle"). The standard pragmatic view holds that the informativity of a referential expression depends on pragmatic contrast: Color adjectives should be used to contrast competitors of the same kind to preempt an ambiguity (e.g., between several triangles of different colors), otherwise they are redundant. Here we propose an alternative to the standard view, the incremental efficiency hypothesis, according to which the efficiency of a referential expression must be calculated incrementally over the entire visual context. This is the first theoretical account of referential efficiency that is sensitive to the incrementality of language processing, making different cross-linguistic predictions depending on word order. Experiment 1 confirmed that English speakers produced more redundant color adjectives (e.g., "the blue triangle") than Spanish speakers (e.g., "el triángulo azul"), but both language groups used more redundant color adjectives in denser displays where it would be more efficient. In Experiments 2A and 2B, we used eye tracking to show that pragmatic contrast is not a processing constraint. Instead, incrementality and efficiency determine that English listeners establish color contrast across categories (BLUE SHAPES > TRIANGULAR ONE), whereas Spanish listeners establish color contrast within a category (TRIANGLES > BLUE ONE). Spanish listeners, however, reversed their visual search strategy when tested in English immediately after. Our results show that speakers and listeners of different languages exploit word order to increase communicative efficiency. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Word Order Predicts Cross-Linguistic Differences in the Production of Redundant Color and Number Modifiers.

When asked to identify objects having unique shapes and colors among other objects, English speakers often produce redundant color modifiers ("the red circle") while Spanish speakers produce them less often ("el circulo (rojo)"). This cross-linguistic difference has been attributed to a difference in word order between the two languages, under the incremental efficiency hypothesis (Rubio-Fernández, Mollica, & Jara-Ettinger, 2020). However, previous studies leave open the possibility that broad language differences between English and Spanish may explain this cross-linguistic difference such that English speakers may generally produce more modifiers than Spanish speakers, including redundant ones, irrespective of word order. Here, we test the incremental efficiency hypothesis in a language production task crossing language (English, Spanish) with modifier type (color, number). Critically, number words occur on the same side of the noun in both English and Spanish. If broad language differences are responsible for the higher rate of color word production in English compared to Spanish, then the same effect should hold for number words. In contrast, the incremental efficiency hypothesis predicts an interaction between language and modifier type, due to different ordering for color words but identical ordering for number words. Our pre-registered analyses offer strong support for the incremental efficiency hypothesis, demonstrating how seemingly small differences in language can cause us to describe the world in surprisingly different ways.

Overinformative Speakers Are Cooperative: Revisiting the Gricean Maxim of Quantity.

A pragmatic account of referential communication is developed which presents an alternative to traditional Gricean accounts by focusing on cooperativeness and efficiency, rather than informativity. The results of four language-production experiments support the view that speakers can be cooperative when producing redundant adjectives, doing so more often when color modification could facilitate the listener's search for the referent in the visual display (Experiment 1a). By contrast, when the listener knew which shape was the target, speakers did not produce redundant color adjectives (Experiment 1b). English speakers used redundant color adjectives more often than Spanish speakers, suggesting that speakers are sensitive to the differential efficiency of prenominal and postnominal modification (Experiment 2). Speakers were also cooperative when using redundant size adjectives (Experiment 3). Overall, these results show how discriminability affects a speaker's choice of referential expression above and beyond considerations of informativity, supporting the view that redundant speakers can be cooperative.

How do violations of Gricean maxims affect reading?

Four eye-tracking experiments examined how violations of the Gricean maxim of quantity affect reading. Experiments 1 and 2 showed that first-pass reading times for size-modified definite nouns (the small towel) were longer when the modifier was redundant, as the context contained one rather than two possible referents, whereas first-pass times for bare nouns (the towel) were unaffected by whether the context contained multiple referents that resulted in ambiguity. Experiment 3 showed that unlike redundant size modifiers, redundant color modifiers did not increase first-pass times. Experiment 4 confirmed this finding, demonstrating that the effect of redundancy was dependent on the meaning of the modifier. We propose that initial referential processing is led by the lexico-semantic representation of the referring expression rather than Gricean expectations about optimal informativeness: Redundancy of a size-modifier immediately disrupts comprehension because the processor fails to activate the referential contrast implied by the meaning of the modifier, whereas referential ambiguity has no immediate effect, as it allows the activation of at least one semantically-compatible referent.

一种基于调色板冗余颜色索引匹配的混合进制信息隐藏算法

本文提出了一种基于GIF图像的信息隐藏算法。该算法先根据各颜色索引在图像数据中的频次，将颜色索引分为有效颜色索引与冗余颜色索引；其次根据调色板颜色索引之间的色差，先对调色板中有效颜色索引分组，得到相似颜色索引子集，再将调色板中的冗余颜色索引以一定的规则分配到各相近颜色索引子集中。隐写时，先对秘密文件进行分组及混合多进制转换，继而采取分组混合多进制的方式嵌入到图像数据中。实验表明，相比现有方法，该算法不但提高了隐写容量，且由于嵌入信息时需要的载体像素点更少，在安全性上反而有了巨大的提升。 This paper presents an information hiding algorithm based on GIF image. Firstly, the algorithm divides the color index into the effective color index and the redundant color index according to the frequency of each color index in the image data. Secondly, on the basis of the color difference between the palette color index, the effective color indexes are divided into several groups to get the similar color index subsets. Finally, the redundant color index in the palette will be assigned to each similar color index subset according to certain rules. When embedding information, the secret file is grouped and converted into M-ary code stream, and then the code stream data is embedded into the image data by the method of grouping and Mixed M-ary. The experimental results show that compared with the existing methods, the proposed algorithm not only improves the steganographic capacity, but also has a great improvement in security because of the fewer carrier pixels needed to embed the information.

A Linear Criterion to sort Color Components in Images

The color and its representation play a basic role in Image Analysis process. Several methods can be beneficial whenever they have a correct representation of wave-length variations used to represent scenes with a camera. A wide variety of spaces and color representations is founded in specialized literature. Each one is useful in concrete circumstances and others may offer redundant color information (for instance, all RGB components are high correlated). This work deals with the task of identifying and sorting which component from several color representations offers the majority of information about the scene. This approach is based on analyzing linear dependences among each color component, by the implementation of a new sorting algorithm based on entropy. The proposal is tested in several outdoor/indoor scenes with different light conditions. Repeatability and stability are tested in order to guarantee its use in several image analysis applications. Finally, the results of this work have been used to enhance an external algorithm to compensate the camera random vibrations.

Developmental Changes in Children's Processing of Redundant Modifiers in Definite Object Descriptions.

This paper investigates developmental changes in children’s processing of redundant information in definite object descriptions. In two experiments, children of two age groups (6 or 7, and 9 or 10 years old) were presented with pictures of sweets. In the first experiment (pairwise comparison), two identical sweets were shown, and one of these was described with a redundant modifier. After the description, the children had to indicate the sweet they preferred most in a forced-choice task. In the second experiment (graded rating), only one sweet was shown, which was described with a redundant color modifier in half of the cases (e.g., “the blue sweet”) and in the other half of the cases simply as “the sweet.” This time, the children were asked to indicate on a 5-point rating scale to what extent they liked the sweets. In both experiments, the results showed that the younger children had a preference for the sweets described with redundant information, while redundant information did not have an effect on the preferences for the older children. These results imply that children are learning to distinguish between situations in which redundant information carries an implicature and situations in which this is not the case.

How Redundant Are Redundant Color Adjectives? An Efficiency-Based Analysis of Color Overspecification.

Color adjectives tend to be used redundantly in referential communication. I propose that redundant color adjectives (RCAs) are often intended to exploit a color contrast in the visual context and hence facilitate object identification, despite not being necessary to establish unique reference. Two language-production experiments investigated two types of factors that may affect the use of RCAs: factors related to the efficiency of color in the visual context and factors related to the semantic category of the noun. The results of Experiment 1 confirmed that people produce RCAs when color may facilitate object recognition; e.g., they do so more often in polychrome displays than in monochrome displays, and more often in English (pre-nominal position) than in Spanish (post-nominal position). RCAs are also used when color is a central property of the object category; e.g., people referred to the color of clothes more often than to the color of geometrical figures (Experiment 1), and they overspecified atypical colors more often than variable and stereotypical colors (Experiment 2). These results are relevant for pragmatic models of referential communication based on Gricean pragmatics and informativeness. An alternative analysis is proposed, which focuses on the efficiency and pertinence of color in a given referential situation.

How Distractor Objects Trigger Referential Overspecification: Testing the Effects of Visual Clutter and Distractor Distance.

In two experiments, we investigate to what extent various visual saliency cues in realistic visual scenes cause speakers to overspecify their definite object descriptions with a redundant color attribute. The results of the first experiment demonstrate that speakers are more likely to redundantly mention color when visual clutter is present in a scene as compared to when this is not the case. In the second experiment, we found that distractor type and distractor color affect redundant color use: Speakers are most likely to overspecify if there is at least one distractor object present that has the same type, but a different color than the target referent. Reliable effects of distractor distance were not found. Taken together, our results suggest that certain visual saliency cues guide speakers in determining which objects in a visual scene are relevant distractors, and which not. We argue that this is problematic for algorithms that aim to generate human-like descriptions of objects (such as the Incremental Algorithm), since these generally select properties that help to distinguish a target from all objects that are present in a scene.

An information-based color feature representation and its application in detecting adult images

For many image classification tasks, color histogram is usually employed as an important “signature” to describe the color distribution of the image and infer the image content. However, most traditional color histograms cannot achieve satisfactory results in many image classification systems. In order to improve the accuracy and reduce the computational complexity of the classification task, an information-based color feature representation is proposed in this paper. The mutual information between the feature and the class label is adopted to evaluate the discriminative power of the feature. A novel quantization scheme is presented, which removes the redundant color components and combines the adjacent components together to generate a new feature to maximize the discriminative ability. An iterative algorithm is performed to derive the color space quantization and color feature generation. In order to illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed color representation, a specific image classification task, i.e., differentiating the adult images from benign ones, is employed. Experimental results show that our color feature achieves better classification performance and better efficiency compared with the traditional color histogram.

Pitch accents in context: How listeners process accentuation in referential communication

We investigated whether listeners are sensitive to (mis)matching accentuation patterns with respect to contrasts in the linguistic and visual context, using Event-Related Potentials. We presented participants with displays of two pictures followed by a spoken reference to one of these pictures (e.g., “the red ball”). The referent was contrastive with respect to the linguistic context (utterance in the previous trial: e.g., “the blue ball”) or with respect to the visual context (other picture in the display; e.g., a display with a red ball and a blue ball). The spoken reference carried a pitch accent on the noun (“the red BALL”) or on the adjective (“the RED ball”), or an intermediate (‘neutral’) accentuation. For the linguistic context, we found evidence for the Missing Accent Hypothesis: Listeners showed processing difficulties, in the form of increased negativities in the ERPs, for missing accents, but not for superfluous accents. ‘Neutral’ or intermediate accents were interpreted as ‘missing’ accents when they occurred late in the referential utterance, but not when they occurred early. For the visual context, we found evidence for the Missing Accent Hypothesis for a missing accent on the adjective (an increase in negativity in the ERPs) and a superfluous accent on the noun (no effect). However, a redundant color adjective (e.g., in the case of a display with a red ball and a red hat) led to less processing problems when the adjective carried a pitch accent.

Perceived Image Gamut Based on Human Visual System and Wavelet Transform

As some images perhaps contain pixels whose individual colors will not be perceived if they are below the spatial threshold of human visual system (HVS), the paper presents a wavelet transform method for color image considering HVS characteristics to reduce the redundant color information and then construct perceived gamut of image (PGI), which will be used for effective image-dependent gamut mapping. Taking into account the Contrast Sensitivity Function (CFS) of HVS model, the color information reduction is implemented in some subbands of the wavelet transform domain. Then the image gamut was visualized using the general convex hull algorithm and the constructed PGI will only indicate the perceived part of color image. We preliminarily establish a method for reliably determining PGI, which is help to developing robust and psycho-visually justified image gamut mapping algorithm in the future.

Color and defective color vision as factors in the conspicuity of signs and signals.

The conspicuity of road traffic signs and signals for a group of observers with the color vision defect of deuteranopia is compared with that for a control group of observers with normal color vision. Conspicuity was measured by the proportion of reports of target objects detected in 300-ms presentations of projected slides of road scenes. There were two instructions, one designed to measure attention conspicuity and the other, search conspicuity. The attention conspicuity of red, orange, and green color-coded traffic control devices was significantly less for deuteranopes than for the observers with normal color vision, but this was not true for yellow and blue color-coded signs. This result is consistent with our understanding of the color perceptions of deuteranopes. The reduction of conspicuity was not so great for the search conspicuity condition. We conclude that redundant color coding does contribute to the conspicuity of signs and signals and that deuteranopes--and probably those with other severe forms of defective color vision--have a significantly reduced ability to notice colored targets, such as road signs and signals, in complex visual environments. The actual and potential application of this work is in the design of signs so they are conspicuous, especially when the user group includes people with defective color vision.

Effectiveness of redundant color coding in multidimensional identification.

This study investigated the effectiveness of redundant color coding in multidimensional identification. Statistical analysis showed that redundant color in multidimensional identification did not necessarily improve performance and response speed might even deteriorate if subjects were not informed of the use of redundant color. Merely informing subjects of the use of redundant color might not benefit identification speed either; subjects had to actually use color in responding to facilitate response speed. Further, redundant color might be more appropriate to associate with the less-salient or the less-familiar stimulus attribute. Implications of the results for the design of multidimensional display and for human information processing were discussed.

Same-different texture discrimination in pigeons: testing competing models of discrimination and stimulus integration.

The choice behavior of 6 pigeons performing a mulltidimensional same-different texture discrimination was examined. On each trial, they had to choose among 2 choice hoppers depending on whether a color, shape, or redundant (color and shape) target signal was present or not in a textured stimulus. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were produced by variations in the priori signal presentation probabilities across conditions. Quantitative analyses of these ROC curves were used to evaluate different competing theories of discrimination (signal detection vs. high-threshold-default response models) and information integration (independent observations, additive integration, unidimensional models). The results suggested the structure of the pigeons' choice behavior in this same-different discrimination was best described by an unequal variance signal detection model involving a unidimensional evidence variable (e.g., degree of difference).

Effects of stimulus color, pattern, and practice on sex differences in mental rotations task performance.

Redundant color information improved performance for both sexes on the Shepard Mental Rotations Task (MRT; Shepard & Metzler, 1971). Absolute score gains for women were larger than those for men; therefore, relative improvement was greater. Substantial practice effects, also favoring women, were apparent in both studies. Study 1 showed that redundant color improved performance by 0.25 SD. Study 2 demonstrated that redundant black-and-white pattern information did not have any effect; a second visuospatial channel, redundant color, was a critical factor in improving scores of men and women on difficult mental rotations tasks.