Reduction Of Residue Levels Research Articles

Consumer Safety and Pesticide Residues: Evaluating Mitigation Protocols for Greengrocery

The application of pesticides remains a necessary measure for pest management in agriculture, particularly in the cultivation of fruits and vegetables. After harvest, the presence of pesticide residues in greengrocery (fruits and vegetables) is significantly influenced by various factors, including storage conditions, handling practices, and subsequent processing methods. The mitigation of these residues to levels compliant with regulated maximum thresholds ensures the safety of raw and processed fruits and vegetables for consumption. A contemporary survey of pesticide residues in greengrocery has gathered considerable attention from consumers, driven by concerns over the potential health risk of pesticide exposure. Consequently, consumers want to be extensively informed about household processing techniques to minimize associated risks. Meanwhile, a critical question arises: does household processing effectively eliminate pesticide residues? A comprehensive review of the literature reveals that conventional methods, such as washing and soaking, offer only limited reduction in residue levels, while emerging treatments, suitable both at household and industrial scale, demonstrate increased efficiency in residues mitigation. This study aims to emphasise the ubiquitous use of pesticides in crop cultivation while providing recommendations for the implementation of efficient treatment protocols to address residue concerns. Following upon available evidence and database mining, the worldwide purpose must be to outline agriculturally and economically viable strategies that prioritize both the health and safety of consumers, as well as the green cultivation and processing of fruits and vegetables.

Effect of vine leaves processing on Azoxystrobin, Fenazaquin and Indoxacarb residues dissipation: processing factors and consumer safety assessment

The effect of vine leaves processing techniques on Azoxystrobin, Fenazaquin, and Indoxacarb residues was investigated. Residue extraction following field application of pesticides and leaf processing was carried out using the QuEChERS method, with analysis conducted by LC-MS/MS. In dry conservation, Azoxystrobin's half-life was estimated to exceed a year, Fenazaquin's was 18 days, and Indoxacarb's was 142 days. Azoxystrobin had a half-life of 261 days, Fenazaquin had a half-life of 9 days, and Indoxacarb's half-life exceeded a year in brine conservation. It is recommended to use dry conservation because it results in an average 60 % reduction in residue levels for the three pesticides. Boiling water significantly reduced pesticide residues (Azoxystrobin −40.3 %, Indoxacarb –22.4 %, and Fenazaquin −28.8 %). It is recommended to use boiling water for washing, as it shows an average removal rate of approximately 30 %. The health risk assessment indicated that consuming vine leaves posed no health risk for consumers, but overall exposure to residues must be considered.

Effect of washing method on the reduction of insecticide residues and quality characteristics of sweet cherry fruits

Sweet cherry trees were sprayed with 5 insecticides (acetamiprid, dimethoate, lambda-cyhalothrin, malathion, tau-fluvalinate) at the recommended field doses in this study. Fruits were harvested after the pre-harvested interval for each pesticide completed and then they were immersed into tap water and three different washing solutions (with three different concentrations) for 3 minutes (at 20ºC). Insecticide concentrations were detected with a multi-residual analysis method using LC-MS/MS in Bursa Uludağ University in 2022. Following the treatments, changes in the quality characteristics of fruits were also investigated by quality (colour, texture and fruit cracking rate, water-soluble dry matter) and sensory analysis (fruit and stem colour, firmness, appearance, general acceptability). The results revealed that washing method with tap water during 3 min decreased insecticide residue level by 7-45% depending on insecticide active compound. Higher reduction rates were observed by washing with citric acid (10%), sodium bicarbonate (2.5%) and sodium hydroxide (0.5%). But significant reductions were detected only in lambda-cyhalothrin and malathion residues when compared with the newly harvested fruit samples. Processing factors (PF) of all washing methods were generally lower than 1 except for three treatments. PF values showed variations depending on the type of washing solution and the active compound of insecticides. Although washing with citric acid (10%), sodium bicarbonate (2.5%) and sodium hydroxide (0.5%) solutions caused reduction in residue levels, their negative effects on the quality and sensory characteristics of the fruits cannot be ruled out.

The effect of drying processes on pesticide residues in orange (Citrus sinensis)

The effect of different drying conditions (based on hot air convective drying and vacuum drying with or without microwave pretreatment) on residual behavior of abamectin, buprofezin, imazalil, and thiophanate-methyl in orange slices was investigated. Processing factors ranged between 1.55 and 3.41, indicating concentration of the residue levels in dried orange slices due to the moisture losses. However, based on the normalized residue concentration with dry matter content of the slices, pesticide residue levels in fresh orange slices reduced by 40.8%–73.2% after drying processes. Hot air drying caused more reduction in residue levels compared to vacuum drying. It was observed that decrease in absolute pressure of vacuum drying from 30 kPa to 15 kPa, increase in drying temperature from 60 °C to 80 °C, and application of microwave pretreatment increased the degradation rate. Moreover, the Pearson analysis revealed that degradation rate in the residue levels during drying was negatively proportional to the octanol-water coefficient of pesticides. Therefore, the highest degradation rate was obtained for buprofezin and thiophanate-methyl during hot air drying (at 80 °C) with application of microwave pretreatment and the lowest degradation rate was obtained for abamectin during vacuum drying (at 60 °C and 30 kPa).

Effect of Processing on Pesticide Residues in Some Edible Fresh Water Fishes

The present study was undertaken to ascertain the effect of processing on pesticide residues in edible fresh water fishes. The fish samples were collected from two different fish markets located in Ludhiana city. Pesticide residues were detected in five different fish species by employing Gas Liquid Chromatography. Major pesticides detected include β-HCH, γ-HCH and chlorpyriphos with levels 0.30 mg kg−1, 0.1–0.35 mg kg−1 and 0.14–0.58 mg kg−1, respectively. Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala were found to have higher levels of pesticide residues. These fish samples were then processed by four different processing methods viz. deep frying, steaming by pressure cooker, conventional oven baking and microwave oven baking to check the reduction in residue levels. Deep frying caused maximum reduction i.e. 40–45% as compared to other processing methods. Steaming reduced pesticide residues by 14–16%, microwave oven baking resulted in 17–20% and conventional oven baking resulted in 20–21% reduction.

Effects of washing, peeling, storage, and fermentation on residue contents of carbaryl and mancozeb in cucumbers grown in greenhouses.

Cucumbers grown in two different greenhouses were exposed to mancozeb and carbaryl at different times. The effects of 10-day preharvest period, water and detergent washing, peeling, predetermined storage period at 4°C (refrigeration), and fermentation on the reduction of residue levels in the plant tissues were investigated. Mancozeb and carbaryl residues in cucumbers were determined by gas chromatography-electron capture detection. Results showed that residue levels in samples, which were collected after 10 days following the pesticide application, were significantly lower than the samples collected after 2 h subsequent to the pesticide application. The culinary applications were effective in reducing the residue levels of the pesticides in cucumbers. As a result, non-fermentative pickling in sodium chloride and acetic acid was the most effective way to reduce the mancozeb and carbaryl residues of the cucumbers.

Residue content of carbaryl applied on greenhouse cucumbers and its reduction by duration of a pre‐harvest interval and post‐harvest household processing

Carbaryl is widely used to control various insect pests on greenhouse cucumbers in Iran. Therefore the control of residual levels of this insecticide is highly necessary. The effects of the household processing such as washing, peeling and refrigeration storage, at 4 °C for 2 days on the reduction of residue levels in the plant tissues were investigated in the different groups. Samples were collected at 1 h to 14 days after application and analysed to determine the content and dissipation rate of carbaryl. Analysis was carried out by the QuEChERS method using HPLC-UV. Carbaryl residue in samples, which were collected post-application in different times showed a gradual and significant (P < 0.05) decrease. The half-life (t(1/2)) of carbaryl applied on cucumbers was 3.2 days. Carbaryl residues were detected in concentration ranges of 0.22-4.91 mg kg(-1). Also, the results indicated that the consumable safety time of carbaryl was found to be more than 14 days on cucumber. Household processing, such as washing and peeling and refrigeration storage, was effective in reducing the residue levels. Also, peeling was the most effective way to reduce the carbaryl residues of the cucumber samples. Washing and refrigerated storage also decreased carbaryl residues.

Fate of imidacloprid and acetamiprid residues during black tea manufacture and transfer into tea infusion

The objective of this paper is to investigate the loss/stability of neonicotinoids (imidacloprid and acetamiprid) residues during the manufacture of black tea and to study the transfer of these pesticides from made tea to its infusion. For orthodox black tea, the manufacturing process involves leaf harvesting (plucking two leaves and a bud), withering, rolling, fermentation (oxidation), and drying. Initial withering and final drying resulted in the loss of pesticide residues, but no significant reduction in residue levels resulted from the rolling and fermentation steps. The drying process resulted in a residue transfer of 64–70% and 69–74% of the initial level, whereas the brewing process resulted in a residue transfer of 37–39% and 45–49% of imidacloprid and acetamiprid, respectively, from dried tea into the infusion. The decrease in acetamiprid levels during drying was also significant (8–13%), whereas the total loss during the manufacturing process ranged from 26 to 31%. Further, brewing for longer periods (an extended brewing time) resulted in higher transfer (up to 44% for imidacloprid and 53% for acetamiprid) of pesticides to tea infusion. Further, the extent of pesticide leaching depends on its water solubility, partition coefficient, and the brewing time.

Residue contents of captan and procymidone applied on tomatoes grown in greenhouses and their reduction by duration of a pre-harvest interval and post-harvest culinary applications

In this study, controlled applications of captan and procymidone were carried out on tomatoes grown in two different greenhouses at different times. The first group of samples were collected immediately after the application and the second group were collected 14 days later. Additionally, control samples were collected before application. The effects of washing, peeling and predetermined storage period, at 4 °C for 7 and 14 days, on the reduction of residue levels in the plant tissues were investigated in the two groups. A gas chromatographic method using acetone, dichloromethane and petroleum ether as extraction solvents, was used to analyse residual captan and procymidone in tomatoes, with obtained recoveries higher than 83%. Captan and procymidone were determined by gas chromatography-electron capture detection (GC-ECD), using a 5% phenylmethylpolysiloxane-coated fused-silica capillary column. Results showed that waiting for the recommended pre-harvest intervals, indicated on the prospectuses of both pesticides, lowered the residue levels to within acceptable limits. Culinary applications, such as washing and peeling and refrigeration storage, were also effective in reducing the residue levels.

Residue contents of DDVP (Dichlorvos) and diazinon applied on cucumbers grown in greenhouses and their reduction by duration of a pre-harvest interval and post-harvest culinary applications

Controlled applications of DDVP (Dichlorvos) and diazinon were carried out on cucumbers grown in two different greenhouses at different times. The first group of samples was collected 4 h after the application and the second group was collected 4 days later, which was the mean cropping period applied in this region following maturation of the cucumber plant. Additionally, control samples were collected before application. The effects of washing, peeling and predetermined storage periods, at 4 °C for 3 and 6 days, on the reduction of residue levels in the plant tissues were investigated in the two groups. A gas chromatographic method, using acetone, dichloromethane and petroleum ether, as extraction solvents was used to analyse residual DDVP and Diazinon in cucumbers, with obtained recoveries greater than 81%. DDVP and Diazinon were determined by gas chromatography–electron capture detection (GC–ECD) equipped with a 5% phenylmethylpolysiloxane-coated fused-silica capillary column. Results showed that residue levels in samples, which were collected after 4 days following the pesticide application, were significantly lower than the samples collected after 4 h subsequent to the pesticide application. Culinary applications, such as washing and peeling and refrigeration storage, were also effective in reducing the residue levels.

Evaluation of endosulfan residues in vegetables grown in greenhouses.

The reduction in residue levels of endosulfan with time after treatment of tomatoes, green beans, peppers and cucumbers grown in different types of commercial greenhouses (flat- and asymmetric-roof greenhouses) in Almería (Spain) was investigated. A study of the major and minor degradation products of endosulfan in peppers and cucumbers (endosulfan-sulfate, -ether and -lactone) was carried out using gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). To establish the influence of environmental conditions on the degradation of endosulfan, several field trials have been carried out in which crops were sprayed at different rates (full, half- and quarter- of those rates recommended) during two seasons (spring and winter). For statistical purposes, the disappearance of endosulfan with time was considered to follow a pseudo-first-order reaction. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) has been applied to the results obtained. Half-lives of residue disappearance were 4.03-4.68 days in green beans, 4.03-4.20 days in tomatoes, 8.22 days in peppers and 7.97 days in cucumbers. Half-lives in spring were shorter than in the winter season. The application rate and the type of greenhouse did not influence the half-lives.

A Study of Fenpropathrin Residues in Tomatoes and Green Beans Grown in Greenhouses in Spain

The reduction in residue levels of fenpropathrin with time after treatment of tomatoes and green beans, grown in two types of commercial greenhouse in Almeria, Spain, was investigated. Extracted residues were quantified by GC-ECD and their composition verified using GC-MS. Recovery of fenpropathrin from samples spiked with differing amounts of the compound were assessed. For statistical purposes, the loss of fenpropathrin with time was considered to follow a pseudo-first order reaction. The plant species and the season had a significant affect on rates of loss of fenpropathrin but the effect of the type of greenhouse and of the applied dose were not significant.