Reduction Flour Research Articles

The content and distribution pattern of chemicals and bioactive compounds of triticale grains

SummaryThere is accumulating evidence that triticale‐based foods have potential health benefits. Herein, we milled triticale grains into five components (break flour, reduction flour, coarse bran, fine bran and whole flour) and analysed their nutritional profiles. Our findings revealed that triticale flour has higher content of minerals (2.04 g 100 g−1), insoluble dietary fibre (14.58 g 100 g−1), polyunsaturated fatty acids (1055.3 μg g−1) and vitamin B9 (0.031 mg 100 g−1) and lower levels of lipids and total essential amino acids than wheat flour. All milling fractions showed higher amounts of unsaturated than saturated fatty acids. Coarse bran and fine bran had the highest mineral and vitamin B content. Break flour has significant amounts of total and essential amino acids, whereas reduction flour has significant amounts of starch and amylose. Break and reduction flour have high mineral bioaccessibility. Thus, milling fractions have unique nutritional properties, which is important for the comprehensive utilisation of triticale.

Analysis of quinoa roller millstreams: Physical, chemical, and functional properties

The objective of present study is to assess the performance of roller milling on quinoa grains, aiming to produce distinct mill stream fractions from perisperm and evaluate its composition and functionalities. During the roller milling process, quinoa yielded three break and three reduction flour streams, as well as coarse bran, fine bran, and germ. Among flour streams, C1 accounted for 49.61% while C2 represented 23.62% of total straight run flour (SRF). Notably, quinoa flour streams exhibited brighter colour and finer granulation similar to wheat flour. Content of ash, protein, and fat increased with successive break flour streams (B1 to B3), displaying a similar trend for reduction flour streams (C1 to C3). Starch damage was higher for last reduction flour streams. Roller milling of quinoa resulted in distinct flour streams from the perisperm, showing physical properties similar to wheat flour. These mill streams varied in yield, nutritional properties, and flour functionalities.

Effect of Milling on Nutritional Components in Common and Zinc-Biofortified Wheat

Biofortification is one of the most successful approaches to enhance the level of micronutrients in wheat. In the present study, wheats with zinc biofortification (foliar fertilization and breeding strategies) were milled into five components (whole flour, break flour, reduction flour, fine bran, and coarse bran) and their mineral content and nutritional components were evaluated. The results revealed that biofortification greatly increased the Zn concentration (by 30.58%-30.86%) and soluble Zn content (by 28.57%-42.86%) of whole flour after digestion. This improvement is mainly in break flour, reduction flour, and fine bran. Meanwhile, the contents of macronutrients including ash, lipids, and proteins and micronutrients containing iron, calcium, and vitamins (B1, B6, and B9) increased after biofortification. In addition, there was a decline in the concentrations of vitamins B2 and B5. Although dietary fibers and starch are the major carbohydrates, total dietary fiber exhibited a declining trend in coarse bran, and starch exhibited a rising trend in break and reduction flour. There was a decrease in the molar ratio of phytates: zinc did not promote a significant improvement in zinc bioaccessibility. These results can be useful for generating wheat varieties rich in micronutrients as well as having better nutritional traits.

Characterization of roller and Ferkar-milled pulse flours using laser diffraction and scanning electron microscopy

Increasing consumer interest in pulse flour-based food formulations has highlighted the importance of flour characterization based on the type (variety) of pulse and milling methods. The objective of the present study was to compare the microstructure of four different pulse flours (chickpea, navy bean, green lentil, and yellow pea) obtained from two milling methods (single-stage Ferkar mill and multi-stage roller mill). Therefore, in the present study, the particle size distribution, protein content, and microstructural characteristics of starch-protein matrices were investigated using laser diffraction, the Dumas method, and scanning electron microscopy. Micrographs depicted that protein bodies were finely distributed in Ferkar-milled flours and straight grade streams of roller-milled flours with similar protein content. The reduction flour stream (possessing the highest protein content) contained more damaged starches than the break flour stream (possessing the lowest protein content) when observed visually. Chickpea starch granules were observed to be highly porous as compared to the starch granules in other pulse flours. Traces of fiber particles were visible in green lentil flours obtained from roller and Ferkar mills. Conclusively, the microstructure and protein content of the pulse flours is influenced by the pulse-type and milling method. Enhanced ingredient functionality obtained from flour fractions will benefit food manufacturers to incorporate pulse flours in food formulations to enhance the nutritional and textural properties of end products.

COMPARISON OF TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT WHEAT SPECIES

For the widespread introduction of different species of wheat into processing, it is necessary to understand the features of the physicochemical properties of these wheats, which determine the behavior of the grain during its milling and the obtaining flour during the dough making process. Technological properties of grain of four different wheat species and the laboratory milling flour obtained from them were investigated.
 It was found that according to grain quality indicators, milling properties and quality flour indicators, 4 species of wheat grain grown in the same agro-climatic conditions showed significant differences. Hard wheat with GPC-B1 gene (breeding line) has a superior baking strength due to the GPC-B1 gene, which significantly increases the protein content in grain (13.51%), gluten content (26.1%), test Zeleny (58 ml) and ash content (1.69%) compare to common hard wheat (Kuyalnyk variety). As a result, flour shown high values of: strength (W=396×10-4 J), high SRC in lactic acid (160%), high dough stability (>30 minutes), low degree of softening of the dough (43 UF). According to the obtained data, waxy wheat (Sofiika variety) consimilar with common baking wheat, excluding low value of Falling Number (FN=70 seconds). When determining on the alveograph, the dough is very tight (L<40 mm) due to high water absorption capacity (WAC=67.3%). The results of SRC test in sodium carbonate confirmed the high value of starch damage with the highest result (108%). Soft wheat (Bilyava variety) differs significantly from common hard wheat. In terms of wheat quality indicators, it can be attributed to medium bread-baking strength. Such flour characterized by less ash content (0.47%), but higher whiteness (70.7 units), less protein content (10.79%), less elasticity (Ie=44.3), but greater extensibility, resulting in a lower P/L ratio (0.83) and less water absorption capacity (WAC=52.7%).
 According to milling properties was investigated that hard wheat with the GPC-B1 locus and common hard wheat Kuyalnik shown similar results. The total yield of flours from these wheats during milling is above 70%, which indicates the economic feasibility of their processing into flour. During milling waxy wheat has a decrease in the reduction flour yield and an increase in the reduction bran yield. Absolutely different results in milling properties show soft wheat. The total yield of soft flour is less – 67.17% with significant increasing of break flour yield and decreasing reduction flour yield.
 Different properties of grain and flour determine the different end use of grain of each wheat species. Wheat with the GPC-B1 gene can be used in production of flour which is used in low-temperature technologies for the manufacture of frozen convenience foods and also as improver for increase the rheological properties of the dough or for pasta-making properties. For end use of waxy wheat (Sofiika variety) can be recommended in the production of pasta products. Although waxy flour can be used as regulator in flour blending for correcting the indicators of common baking wheat. Blends of flour from waxy wheat grain and flour from hard wheat grain with GPC-B1 gene are ideal for making frozen products. Soft wheat (Belyava variety) flour preferred for low moisture crackers, cookies and can be added in a small amount to special types of bread to give a lighter color to the crumb.

Physicochemical and rheological properties of Australian and Russian wheat flour mill streams

AbstractBackground and objectivesThe physicochemical and rheological properties of flour mill streams obtained from the normal milling process of two wheat types were studied. Flour mill streams from consecutive milling processes (breaking, dividing, and reduction stages) differed in their overall technological functionality.FindingsFor both Australian and Russian wheat types, break streams had higher moisture and ash contents than did reduction streams. Ash content increased with progressively increasing break and reduction streams. Likewise, protein and fat contents increased with successive break streams (B1–B5) and reduction streams (C5 and C6). The results for both wheat types indicate that the progressive milling of break and reduction mill streams led to a marked decrease in flour gluten index. For both wheat types, the reduction flour streams had higher levels of damaged starch than did the break section flour streams. The break section flour streams had a higher α‐amylase activity than did the reduction flour streams.ConclusionsRheological properties illustrated a wide range of dough properties between the different break and reduction streams of Australian and Russian wheat types.Significance and noveltyThe present study was applied on flour mill streams at large‐scale milling. Also, fat content of the investigated mill streams is somewhat novel.

Distribution of β-Glucan, Phenolic Acids, and Proteins as Functional Phytonutrients of Hull-Less Barley Grain.

Two hull-less barley varieties were roller-milled, and breaks (B) and reduction flours (C), shorts, and bran were collected. Shorts, which mainly originate from endosperm cells with a smaller amount of the outer layers, had the largest yield (48.87–51.54%). Ash (0.82–3.10%) and protein (9.95–14.8%) increased from flours toward shorts and bran, while starch decreased (82.31–48.69%). In contrast to clear distribution differences in protein content (bran > shorts > C > B), albumins/globulins content was lowest in bran (0.78–0.90 g/100 gdw), and their distribution between fractions was uneven and genotype dependent. Distribution of hordeins (6.69–10.49 g/100 gdw) was more distinct and generally decreased in order from bran > B > shorts > C. The proportion of nutritionally poor C-hordeins in total hordeins varied from 28.33% to 30.24%, without significant differences between fractions. The β-glucan content varied from 0.80% to 7.49% with decreasing content in the order bran, shorts > C > B. Shorts and bran could be classified as moderate and high β-glucan flour (5.70–7.22%). The total phenolic and antioxidant activities ranged from 0.91 to 2.21 mg GAE/gdw and 28.81–72.06%, respectively. Ferulic and sinapic acids determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were major contributors to the antioxidant activity (45.16–1026.91 ug/gdw and 18.93–206.52 ug/gdw), respectively. The yield and high content of phytonutrients make hull-less barley shorts suitable for the production of health-promoting food and food supplements.

Physico-chemical properties and milling behavior of modern triticale genotypes

Triticale is a cereal crop alternative to wheat, and its incorporation into food products is limited. This work aimed to evaluate the physico-chemical properties and the milling behavior of modern triticale genotypes in order to determine their use in the baking industry. The protein content, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) sedimentation test, and falling number of triticale genotypes were lower than wheat. The ash content was higher for triticales, while the test weight, starch content, and flour extraction yield were comparable to wheat; but with a considerable variability in the break and reduction flour yield. The studied triticale genotypes can be used in food products that do not require high gluten strength, such as cookies and cakes, as well as cereal bars or extruded cereals, for which ash content and falling number are irrelevant. In addition, the falling number test was not adequate to evaluate the a-amylase activity of triticales and considerable variability in the triticale grain hardness was observed.

Expression of Puroindoline a in Durum Wheat Affects Milling and Pasting Properties.

Durum wheat has limited culinary utilizations partly due to its extremely hard kernel texture. Previously, we developed transgenic durum wheat lines with expression of the wildtype Puroindoline a (Pina) and characterized PINA’s effects on kernel hardness, total flour yield and dough mixing properties in durum wheat. The medium-hard kernel texture is potentially useful for exploring culinary applications of durum wheat. In the present study, we examined the milling parameters and flour attributes of the transgenic lines, including particle size distribution, damaged starch and water binding capacity. PINA expression results in increased break and reduction flour yield but decreased shorts. PINA expression also leads to finer flour particles and decreased starch damage. Interestingly, PINA transgenic lines showed increased peak viscosity and breakdown viscosity but leave other flour pasting parameters generally unaltered. PINA transgenic lines were associated with increased small monomeric proteins, appearing to affect gluten aggregation. Our data together with several previous results highlight distinct effects of PINs on pasting properties depending on species and variety. The medium-hard kernel texture together with improved pasting parameters may be valuable for producing a broader range of end-products from durum wheat.

Relationship of Moisture Status and Quality Characteristics of Fresh Wet Noodles Prepared from Different Grade Wheat Flours from Flour Milling Streams

This study was performed to investigate the quality of fresh wet noodles made from flour milling streams. The basic composition, texture properties, cooking characteristics, and moisture status were measured to evaluate the qualities of noodles. The results indicated that as storage time increased, the springiness of fresh wet noodles gradually decreased, but the hardness increased. Additionally, the cooking loss rate was increased obviously, and the water absorption rate generally decreased. The relaxation times T21 and T22, analyzed by low-field nuclear magnetic resonance, showed a downward trend that proton mobility became poor and bound water changed into intermediate water. Noodles made from reduction flour exhibited better quality. Compared to that with ambient temperature storage, the wet noodles under frozen storage showed better quality. The relaxation time T21, and T22 showed a positive correlation with noodle quality.

Study on the variation of stable isotopic fingerprints of wheat kernel along with milling processing

In the present study, the variation of stable isotopic ratio of carbon and nitrogen in wheat kernel along with milling fractions (bran, germ, break flour, reduction flour) in three genotypes from three different locations in five years (2012–2016) was investigated. Isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) was used to analyze the samples. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences among regions, genotypes, years, and their interactions for all wheat fractions. Region showed the largest variability in the δ13C and δ15N values of wholemeal and different fractions. A Significant positive correlation was found between whole kernel and different milling fractions for both carbon and nitrogen isotopes suggesting reliability of fractions fingerprints for geographical traceability of wheat. Moreover, a classification model based on the canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) was built which correctly classify 93.8% samples in all regions using light stable carbon and nitrogen isotope of whole wheat and milling fractions. Present findings significantly contribute to understand the variations of isotopic composition in different wheat milling fractions depending on geographical origins and offer valuable insight into the control of mislabeling regarding geographical origin.

Deoxynivalenol in wheat milling fractions: A critical evaluation regarding ongoing and new legislation limits

New maximum limits (ML) for deoxynivalenol (DON) in wheat and its products were set in Brazil in 2017, and new changes are scheduled for 2019. The concentration of DON in wheat and milling fractions (bran, shorts, break flour, reduction flour) was evaluated in samples from commercial fields to discuss the effects of the new legislation. Cleaned wheat samples contaminated with DON had concentrations ranging from 308 to 2373 ng g−1 (n = 29), and one sample had a concentration of 3426 ng g−1. DON concentration obtained in bran and shorts were significantly higher than that of the flours. Compared to the initial concentration in cleaned wheat, DON relative concentrations were 73 and 35% higher in bran and shorts, respectively, and 67% lower in the straight run flour (break plus reduction flour). The bran and straight run flour contained DON concentrations that were 62.1 and 17.2% respectively higher than that of the ML set in Brazil in 2017; additionally, these values would reach 65.5 and 34.5%, respectively, according to the changes to be in effect in 2019. The present study demonstrates DON distribution in wheat milling fractions, thus, providing updated information for the management of DON contamination for the industry and policymakers.

O–H–C stable isotopes as discriminant markers for fruits botanical origin

In the present study, the variation of stable isotopic ratio of carbon and nitrogen in wheat kernel along with milling fractions (bran, germ, break flour, reduction flour) in three genotypes from three different locations in five years (2012–2016) was investigated. Isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) was used to analyze the samples. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences among regions, genotypes, years, and their interactions for all wheat fractions. Region showed the largest variability in the δ13C and δ15N values of wholemeal and different fractions. A Significant positive correlation was found between whole kernel and different milling fractions for both carbon and nitrogen isotopes suggesting reliability of fractions fingerprints for geographical traceability of wheat. Moreover, a classification model based on the canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) was built which correctly classify 93.8% samples in all regions using light stable carbon and nitrogen isotope of whole wheat and milling fractions. Present findings significantly contribute to understand the variations of isotopic composition in different wheat milling fractions depending on geographical origins and offer valuable insight into the control of mislabeling regarding geographical origin.

Bread wheat milling behavior: effects of genetic and environmental factors, and modeling using grain mechanical resistance traits.

Genetic (Pinb-D1 alleles) and environment (through vitreousness) have important effects on bread wheat milling behavior. SKCS optimal values corresponding to soft vitreous or hard mealy grains were defined to obtain the highest total flour yield. Near-isogenic lines of bread wheat that differ in hardness, due to distinct puroindoline-b alleles (the wild type, Pinb-D1a, or the mutated forms, Pinb-D1b or Pinb-D1d), were grown in different environments and under two nitrogen fertilization levels, to study genetic and environmental effects on milling behavior. Milling tests used a prototype mill, equipped with two break steps, one sizing step, and two reduction steps, and this enabled 21 individual or aggregated milling fractions to be collected. Four current grain characters, thousand grain weight, test weight, grain diameter, and protein content, were measured, and three characters known to influence grain mechanical resistance, NIRS hardness, SKCS hardness index, and grain vitreousness (a character affecting the grain mechanical behavior but generally not studied). As expected, the wild type or mutated forms of Pinb-D1 alleles led to contrasted milling behavior: soft genotypes produced high quantities of break flour and low quantities of reduction flour, whereas reverse quantities were observed for hard genotypes. This different milling behavior had only a moderate influence on total flour production. NIRS hardness and vitreousness were, respectively, the most important and the second most important grain characters to explain milling behavior. However, contrary to NIRS hardness, vitreousness was only involved in endosperm reduction and not in the separation between the starchy endosperm and the outer layers. The highest flour yields were obtained for SKCS values comprised between 30 and 50, which corresponded either to soft vitreous or hard mealy grains. Prediction equations were defined and showed a good accuracy estimating break and reduction flours portions, but should be used more cautiously for total flour.

Distribution of Phenolic Acids in Milling Fractions of Spring Wheats

The core objective of the current research was to determine the phenolic acids through High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) in milling fractions of spring wheats, i.e., bran, shorts, break, and reduction flour. In wheat bran, caffeic, p-coumaric, syringic, and ferulic acid ranged from 0.93 to 1.5, 24 to 32.00, 55.30 to 94, and 137.25 to 180.30 μg/g, respectively. Maximum caffeic acid (0.33 μg/g), p-coumaric acid (12.12 μg/g), and ferulic acid content (29.12 μg/g) were found in the reduction flour of Sehar-2006. Furthermore, whole wheat flour of Shafaq-2006 revealed maximum caffeic acid (1.8 μg/g), p-coumaric acid (22.3 μg/g), and syringic acid (47.07 μg/g). Since antioxidant activity is directly related with phenolic acids, it was decreased (43.26 to 74.40%) in cookies with the decrease in phenolic acids during storage. Moreover, phenolic acids hold potential to be extracted and utilized in cereal-based products for best quality and value addition.

Antioxidant activity and polyphenol content in milling fractions of purple wheat

The aim of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant activity of four milling fractions of purple wheat breeding lines grown in 2010. Radical scavenging activity by the DPPH assay and reducing power of the samples were determined, as well as the content of polyphenols, flavonoids and anthocyanins. The obtained results showed that flour fractions (break and reduction flour) had lower total antioxidant potential than bran fractions (fine and coarse bran). A significant correlation was obtained between the DPPH and reducing power assay (R2 = 0.87). The correlation between antioxidant assays and polyphenol, flavonoid and anthocyanin content suggested that polyphenols in cereals are responsible for the antioxidant activities.

From wheat to sourdough bread: a laboratory scale study on the fate of deoxynivalenol content

The effect of wheat processing by scouring, milling and sourdough bread making on the fate of deoxynivalenol was studied using wheat samples artificially contaminated with Fusarium graminearum. The scourer assures an intensive treatment of grain surface, allowing the reduction of deoxynivalenol content by 34.6-46.2%. After milling, the deoxynivalenol was found in all wheat mill fractions. The highest deoxynivalenol contents were found in bran fractions (bran and shorts). Concerning the flour fractions, those with low ash content, resulting from the first break and first reduction flours, were found to have higher deoxynivalenol concentrations than other flour fractions. The sourdough fermentation with selected lactic acid bacteria allowed the significant decrease (58.6-66.5%) of deoxynivalenol content of flour, while the spontaneous fermentation induced a much lower decrease (26.2-29.1%). The baking process caused the reduction of deoxynivalenol content by 11.4-15.5% compared to fermented dough.

Chemometric Approach to Characterization of Flour Mill Streams: Chemical and Rheological Properties

The aim of the present study was to utilize chemometric methods (the principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis) for monitoring the certain aspects of flour mill streams quality and their interrelation to selected rheological properties. Thirty-seven flour mill streams were separated from industrial mill of 300 t/day capacity. All flour streams were analyzed for ash, protein, wet gluten, and damaged starch content and rheological properties as determined by Brabender Farinograph, Extensograph, and Amylograph. The obtained results indicated that break, sizing, and reduction flour streams exhibited different rheological behavior in relation to a change in protein, wet gluten, ash, and mechanically damaged starch content within the milling passages. Rheological properties of dough during mixing and kneading as well as during extension were different with regard to the technological phase of milling from which they were extracted. The obtained results could be utilized for selection of certain flour streams in production of special-purpose flours.

Roller milling fractionation of green gram (Vigna radiata): optimization of milling conditions and chemical characterization of millstreams.

In the view of recent growing interest in utilization of grain fractions as food ingredient, present investigation was carried out to evaluate the roller milling potential of green gram. The effect of conditioning moistures on green gram roller milling were studied. The results showed decrease in flour yield from 85.56 to 58.74% with increase in conditioning moisture from 10 to 16%. Higher yield of flour was observed from the first (C1), second (C2) and third (C3) reduction passages; whereas, the first (B1), second (B2) and third (B3) break passages produced less flour. The distribution of protein, dietary fiber, ash and fat in different flour streams and by-products from roller milled fractions of green gram showed wide variation. The protein content increased with increasing numbers of breaks and reductions in the flour streams. The highest protein content of 30.16% was found in bran duster flour and lowest (11.32%) in fine seed coat. The protein content of break streams was found lower than reduction streams. The dietary fiber content of coarse seed coat was highest (71.17%) followed by the fine seed coat (57.22%). The microstructure studies of milled fractions of green gram showed more deformed and damaged starch granules in reduction flour streams than break flour streams.

Dynamics of radioactive cesium (134Cs and 137Cs) during the milling of contaminated Japanese wheat cultivars and during the cooking of udon noodles made from wheat flour.

The fate of radioactive cesium ((134)Cs plus (137)Cs) during the milling of contaminated Japanese wheat cultivars harvested in FY2011, and during the cooking of Japanese udon noodles made from the wheat flour, was investigated. Grain samples containing various radioactive cesium concentrations (36.6 to 772 Bq/kg [dry weight]) were milled using a laboratory-scale test mill to produce eight fractions: three break flours (1B, 2B, and 3B), three reduction flours (1M, 2M, and 3M), bran, and shorts. The concentrations of radioactive cesium were found to be highest in the bran fractions of all the samples tested, with 2.3- to 2.5-fold higher values than that of the whole grain. Shorts contained radioactive cesium levels similar to that of the whole grain. In contrast, radioactive cesium concentrations in other fractions were found to be less than half the concentration in whole grain. The average processing factor (PF) value calculated for patent flour (0.401 ± 0.048), made from the mixture of 1B, 2B, 1M, and 2M for human consumption, or for low-grade flour (0.467 ± 0.045), made from the mixture of 3B and 3M, was found to be less than 0.5; whereas the average PF value (2.07 ± 0.232) for feed bran (mixture of bran and shorts), which has been used mainly as livestock feed in Japan, was over 2.0. Boiling udon noodles (made from patent flour) resulted in a substantial reduction (>70 % of initial amount) of radioactive cesium. Moreover, radioactive cesium was reduced further (<10 % of the initial amount) in the subsequent rinsing process, and the PF value of boiled noodles was recorded as 0.194. These results demonstrated that patent flour containing radioactive cesium can be made safe for human consumption by adopting the standard limit for radioactive cesium in wheat grain and that radioactive cesium in udon noodles is substantially reduced by cooking.