Reduced Cooking Time Research Articles

Characterization of chemical properties of fish-flavoured spicy tamarind cube

Fish-flavoured spicy tamarind cube is categorized as a type of bouillon cube. It is a processed food that has been developed and benefits the consumers due to low cost, being ready to use, reduced cooking time and giving intense flavour to the cooking dish. Food processing improves the stability, safety, taste and makes the food healthier. While there are various advantages to processing, the chemical food characteristics might be adversely affected. The study aimed to evaluate the amount of chemical composition, macromolecule, phytochemical content, peroxide value and antioxidant activity present in the fish-flavoured spicy tamarind cube. The analysis was performed using a different methodology. The content of mineral and ascorbic acid of the cube was evaluated by using scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX) and titration methods respectively. Carbohydrate was estimated by difference using equation and protein by micro Kjeldahl method. For both phytochemical compounds, total phenolic and flavonoid are measured spectrophotometrically in this study. In addition, peroxide value was determined by titration method and antioxidant activity was assayed using 2,2- diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical. The result showed the cube contained 2.12% sodium, 1.22% copper and 0.43% potassium while the ascorbic acid value was 66.00 mg/100 g. The macromolecule content recorded was 40.15 g/100 g for carbohydrates and 7.54 g/100 g for protein. The cube had 10.77 mg GAE/g and 21.72 mg QE/g for total phenolic and flavonoid respectively. The peroxide value of the cube was 9.52 meq/kg and classified in a moderate oxidation state. Furthermore, the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) for antioxidant activity analysed was 89.04 µg/mL which means the cube shows intermediate antioxidant activity. Based on the result, the cube is safe to consume and can provide health benefits to consumers.

Analyzing Cooking Efficiency of Gradoli Purgatory Beans: Effects of Dehulling, Malting, and Monovalent Carbonates.

Legumes, rich in protein, fiber, and micronutrients, are increasingly popular in pulse-based and gluten-free foods despite global consumption stagnating at 21 g/day due to taste, low protein digestibility, anti-nutrients, and long cooking times. Bean resistance to cooking causes textural defects like the hardshell and hard-to-cook phenomena. The pectin-cation-phytate hypothesis explains why soaking beans in sodium salts reduces cooking time by enhancing pectin solubility in water. Gradoli Purgatory beans (GPB), from Italy's Latium region, were malted, reducing phytic acid by 32% and oligosaccharides by 63%. This study evaluated the hardness of cooked GPB seeds in various conditions, including decorticated or malted states, using a modified standard method. Cooking at 98 °C for 7-75 min on an induction hob with a water-to-seed ratio of 4 g/g was tested. Soaking was applied before cooking for conventional seeds only, followed by texture analysis. Conventional GPBs were adequately cooked if their cotyledons disintegrated upon pressing, requiring a force peak of 250 to 220 N and cooking times of 52 to 57 min. Malted, decorticated, and split GPBs cooked similarly to raw decorticated and split ones, with times of 32 and 25 min, respectively. Faster cooking was due to bean coat removal and splitting, not chemical changes. Sodium or potassium carbonate/bicarbonate at 1-2 g/L improved cooking efficiency, with 2 g/L of sodium carbonate reducing cooking time to 13 min. Higher concentrations caused non-uniform cooking. Cooking malted, decorticated, and split GPBs in sodium-carbonated water reduced greenhouse gas emissions from 561 to 368 g CO2e/kg, meeting the demand for eco-friendly and nutritionally enhanced plant protein sources.

Creating energy poverty by an anti-energy poverty policy? An analysis of the impact of the “coal-to-gas” policy in Northern China

The recent “coal-to-gas" (CTG) energy policy serves as an important measure to mitigate air pollution in northern China, and also carries out a mission of alleviating rural energy poverty. To unravel the impact of the CTG policy on rural energy poverty, this study examines the effect on economic and well-being dimensions of energy poverty based on data from five villages in northern China. The findings indicate that in general the CTG policy only limitedly alleviated rural energy poverty with effects varying significantly across different social groups. Economically, the policy has significantly increased recipients’ financial burden, and thereby exacerbated their energy poverty. In terms of well-being, the policy has improved the quality of life for villagers by reducing cooking time and raising indoor temperature, thus contributing to a reduction in energy poverty. The CTG recipients are distinguished into four categories based on varied experiences on economic and well-being aspects, with only one third experiencing overall positive impacts. The study suggests that energy policies intended to alleviate energy poverty may paradoxically perpetuate it. The differential impact across social groups calls for more nuanced and targeted approaches to mitigate the adverse effects of energy policies.

Evaluating consumer preferences for reduced cooking time, taste and colour of beans in rural and urban communities in Uganda

BackgroundCommon bean breeders strive to deliver farmer- and consumer-preferred varieties that are well-adapted to distinct production environments, changing markets and end uses. However, there is information gap on the key traits that customers prefer and are willing to pay for. This paper examined the preferences and willingness to pay for reduced cooking time and other selected traits in the Ugandan bean markets using a choice experiment data elicited from 1152 urban and rural bean consuming households. A latent class model was used to assess preferences and the willingness to pay for reduced cooking time.ResultsResults indicated that taste, cooking time, bean swelling on cooking, and grain color were the preferred attributes in decreasing order among non-bean-producers. About 72% of the urban consumers were willing to pay 41 shillings, 53 shillings and 42 shillings above prices for reduction in cooking time from 120 (status quo) to 90, 75, and 60 min, respectively. For consumers who also grow their beans for food and surplus for sale, reduced cooking time is important but not as much as yield and climate resilience. The study identified four distinct customer segments—two among bean-producing households and two among non-bean-producing households. Gender, education, level of altruism/openness to change, household economic status, and price sensitivity were the major factors influencing segment membership.ConclusionsThe study findings demonstrated that breeding to reduce cooking time will generate a significant social savings in terms of less cooking fuel, water and time, but cooking time ought to be considered alongside other attributes preferred by consumers and farmers to succeed. Results also suggest that women urban consumers attach more importance to higher levels of intrinsic traits (non-visible but experienced by consumers) compared to men—thus promotional campaigns popularizing new varieties should target women to stimulate demand.

Effect of high hydrostatic pressure and thermal treatment on polyphenolic compounds and the antioxidant capacity of Phaseolus coccineus L.

AbstractBackground and ObjectivesHigh hydrostatic pressure (HHP) is a nonthermal technology that has been applied to several innovative food products, extending shelf life while preserving sensory characteristics and nutritional value. This technology is feasible to apply to legumes, like beans, to soften them and reduce preparation time. Traditionally, before bean consumption, soaking and cooking processes are carried out to develop palatability; however, this involves a loss of compounds with high biological activity such as dietary fiber, oligosaccharides, and polyphenols, which are of interest due to their antioxidant capacity and related benefits linked to a reduction in the risk of several diseases. Thus, the aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of HHP against traditional cooking on polyphenols and the antioxidant capacity of four Phaseolus coccineus L. cultivars: three Mexican (purple, brown, and white) and one Spanish (white).FindingsThere was a higher loss of polyphenols in beans where only heat treatment was applied compared to those treated by HHP. The highest antioxidant capacity (1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picrylhydrazyl and ferric‐reducing antioxidant power) was observed in colored samples with a higher content of total polyphenols.ConclusionsThe use of HHP decreases the cooking time of beans by 15 min while preserving the polyphenol content and antioxidant properties.Significance and NoveltyHHP can be an alternative for the legume food industry, to reduce cooking time, while preserving or improving their composition and functionality.

Effect of ingredients on cooking quality, textural properties, and microstructure of fresh mung bean by‐product gluten‐free pasta

SummaryMung bean by‐product (MBB), containing high protein and dietary fibre, was selected as the main ingredient to make fresh gluten‐free pasta. Effects of MBB flour, egg white powder (EWP) and water on pasta quality were investigated by extreme vertices mixture design. Seven formulations of MBB pasta were evaluated for colour, protein content, dietary fibre, cooking quality and textural properties. All MBB pasta formulations had significantly higher protein content and dietary fibre than semolina pasta. Higher EWP content increased optimum cooking time, firmness, tensile strength and elongation (P ≤ 0.05) and decreased cooking loss. Scanning electron micrographs showed that the EWP created a strongly continuous protein network. An increase in water reduced cooking time and firmness but increased cooking loss (P ≤ 0.05). Firm and elastic cooked MBB pasta was obtained under conditions of high EWP and low moisture content.

Chemical and microstructural characterization of easy- and hard-to-cook Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC.) collections

Differences in the microstructure and the chemical composition of pectic polymers were investigated from three Jack bean collections with different hard-to-cook (HTC) levels, as confirmed by the optimal cooking time analysis. These collections showed different cell and starch granule sizes, where the hardest-to-cook bean (Jombang collection) had the smallest maximum cell perimeter (285 μm), the smallest starch granule perimeter (98 μm), and the highest frequency of small intercellular space indicating more linkage in the middle lamella. No significant difference was observed in the frequency of small intercellular spaces between Malang and Cilacap despite having different optimal cooking times. Jack bean cotyledon cell walls were mainly composed of insoluble polysaccharide rich in arabinose and galactose. The beans contained high covalently bound pectin fractions (NEF) ranging from 78% to 83%. Higher bound phenolics (ferulic acid) were found with the increase in the optimal cooking times of the collections. Overall, the findings suggest the occurrence of cell wall linkage and highlight the importance of ferulic acid pectin crosslink in HTC Jack bean. This study could help develop strategies to reduce cooking time to promote the utilization of Jack bean.

Comparative assessment of two different designs of box solar cookers under algerian sahara conditions

This paper deals with the experimental study of two box-type solar cookers equipped with booster mirrors and suitable for cooking a single family’s food. The first one has a conventional, ordinary horizontal aperture area and the second one has an inclined aperture area. The latter is a new configuration which allows for much higher solar radiation interception, resulting in better cooking performance, especially in the winter when the sun’s elevation is low. Optimum inclination angles of the booster mirrors were calculated in order to maximize the reflection of the solar rays on the absorber plates. The cooking performance of the proposed new cooker was compared with the conventional box solar cooker of the same material and surface during Winter 2013 in the Ghardaîa Sahara climate (32.39°N, 3.78°E), Algeria. According to the values of some essential thermal performance parameters suggested by International Standards and evaluated by experimental studies, the inclined aperture area improves the thermal performance of the box-type solar cooker remarkably, reducing cooking time considerably. The first and second figures of merit for the improved cooker, respectively, were 0.15 and 0.47 compared to 0.13 and 0.38 for the conventional cooker.

Processing in different solutions to obtain dried beans with reduced cooking time

The objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of immersion processing in different solutions on the quality parameters of common beans, aiming to obtain a dried product with reduced cooking time. A Plackett & Burman design was used to evaluate the effects of six different solutions and immersion times under different conditions on the processing of beans. After selecting the factors, two central composite designs (CCD) were performed using immersion time, Na2CO3 concentration, and K2CO3 concentration. A four-hour immersion time was sufficient for processing. The use of Na2CO3 solution up to a concentration of 3 g.100 mL−1 in the immersion processing of beans did not increase the product damage level and did not affect hydration capacity. Processing beans with increased Na2CO3 and K2CO3 concentrations from 0 to 3 g.100 mL−1 reduced cooking time by approximately 98% and 94%, respectively. However, increasing the concentrations of Na2CO3 and K2CO3 resulted in darkening of the bean's skin, resulting in a greater color difference of the beans after processing.

The effects of elevation and soaking conditions on dry bean cooking time

AbstractDry beans and other pulses (e.g., chickpeas and cowpeas) are nutrient‐dense foods that promote human and environmental health. However, consumption is declining in many regions around the world. Addressing barriers to greater pulse intake is important to reverse this trend. Cooking time is one such barrier, with consumers viewing the long cooking times of many pulses as a hurdle to higher consumption due to lack of time or fuel availability. Equipping consumers with simple, accessible ways to reduce pulse cooking time is one way to mitigate this barrier. Accordingly, this study assessed changes to cooking time when pinto beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) were cooked at four elevations using different soaking conditions, which reflect a combination of the soaking method and salt added to the soaking solution. There were seven different cooking conditions: soaking via the overnight or quick soak method in only water or in 1% sodium chloride (NaCl) or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) solutions and a no soak with no salt added comparison. Using an overnight (12‐h) soak or a quick soak resulted in similar reductions in cooking time compared to unsoaked beans. Soaking in NaCl and NaHCO3 solutions further decreased cooking time than when only water was used, with the shortest cooking times seen for NaHCO3. Elevation also impacted cooking time, with the longest cooking time being for unsoaked beans at the highest testing elevation. Adding either salt to the soaking water reduced the effect of elevation. This information was synthesized to give consumers practical tips to reduce cooking time.

Analyzing Factors Considered by Career Housewives in Bandung, Indonesia in Using Ready-to-Cook (RTC) Product in Daily Life

In Indonesia, the trend of Ready-to-Cook (RTC) products began to emerge in 2010, which provides more practical daily food needs by reducing cooking time. Even so, these products are often misinterpretation, that leads difficulty to penetrate the market. This study aims to determine the effectiveness of Ready-to-Cook (RTC) product segmentation including characteristics, factors considered by customers, to barriers in using the products, especially for market penetration in Bandung, West Java. The objective is to be able to determine the general barriers, hereby provide the best strategy and implementation for product penetration. This research is a qualitative method which was conducted through in-depth interviews with 12 informants using a purposive sampling method. The results of this study indicate 3 main characteristics of the target market for career housewives based on cooking frequency; every day, at least 2 times a week, and undefined. More than half of the informants misinterpreted the definition of Ready-to-Cook (RTC) products which leads to Ready-to-Eat (RTE) products, this caused high barriers which leads products perception about unhealthy ingredients, questionable quality, variety to the convenience of the product. The important factors considered by career housewives is menu variety, food quality, and convenience of food based on functional value. The current strategy is to focus on the characteristic approach of career housewives who cook every day and pursue the aspects of the product menu served to become more varied for daily meals, and convenience to keep up with the busy life of career housewives.

Use of monosodium glutamate as alternative to reduce sodium in cooking affects the physicochemical, phytochemical, and sensory attributes of pigmented and non-pigmented rice

The increased consumption of processed foods makes diets more susceptible to high levels of sodium chloride (NaCl) and foods of low nutritional value. With this, the objective was to evaluate the influence of different contents of sodium chloride (NaCl) and monosodium glutamate (MSG) during the cooking of brown, black, and red rice, in order to reduce the concentration of NaCl in the rice preparation, since it toward public health concern. Replacing NaCl with 100% MSG in the preparation of pigmented and non-pigmented cooked rice resulted in reduced cooking time (up to 25.44%), rice hardness (up to 24.32%) and improved free phenolics. In addition, black rice showed an 8.60% increase in anthocyanins, while in red rice 55% of proanthocyanidins remained after cooking with 100% MSG. On the other hand, an increase in the content of leached compounds during cooking was mainly represented by amylose, proteins and proanthocyanidins. Regarding sensory attributes, MSG improved the appearance and texture, increasing the acceptability of cooked brown, black and red rice.

Preferences and adoption of improved cookstove from results-based financing program in Southeastern Ethiopia

Environment-friendly energy practices are essential for a sustainable and quality environment in most developing countries, like Ethiopia. To achieve this, results-based financing (RBF) was implemented to distribute improved cookstove with a demand and supply side management system. However, the success of RBF is not evaluated regarding households’ preferences and adoption of the stove. This study was conducted to evaluate households’ preference and adoption of improved Tikikil stove in the RBF implementation areas. Data were collected from 191 households using a household survey and 10 focus group discussions. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a binary logit regression model using STATA 16 software. The result revealed that the cost of stove, stove holding, construction material, cooking time reduction, and smoke reduction were the top five attributes ranked by user households. The dissatisfied households have complained about durability, wood inlet size, stove cost, and suitability of pot size. Results also indicated that the success of RBF program showed moderately effective. The regression result revealed that education, family size, landholding size, livestock holding, fuel expenditure, awareness, and separate kitchen were significantly and positively associated while distance to nearest town is significantly and negatively related to the adoption of Tikikil stove. The findings suggest that households need Tikikil stove options to reduce the negative effect of traditional stoves but currently available stoves lack to address the preferences of the households. In addition, different socio-economic characteristics of households and stove attributes are important factors that need to consider for the wider adoption of ICS to meet the current demand of carbon credit by reducing emissions from traditional stove.

Gene expression profiling of soaked dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) reveals cell wall modification plays a role in cooking time.

Dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are a nutritious food, but their lengthy cooking requirements are barriers to consumption. Presoaking is one strategy to reduce cooking time. Soaking allows hydration to occur prior to cooking, and enzymatic changes to pectic polysaccharides also occur during soaking that shorten the cooking time of beans. Little is known about how gene expression during soaking influences cooking times. The objectives of this study were to (1) identify gene expression patterns that are altered by soaking and (2) compare gene expression in fast-cooking and slow-cooking bean genotypes. RNA was extracted from four bean genotypes at five soaking time points (0, 3, 6, 12, and 18h) and expression abundances were detected using Quant-seq. Differential gene expression analysis and weighted gene coexpression network analysis were used to identify candidate genes within quantitative trait loci for water uptake and cooking time. Genes related to cell wall growth and development as well as hypoxic stress were differentially expressed between the fast- and slow-cooking beans due to soaking. Candidate genes identified in the slow-cooking beans included enzymes that increase intracellular calcium concentrations and cell wall modification enzymes. The expression of cell wall-strengthening enzymes in the slow-cooking beans may increase their cooking time and ability to resist osmotic stress by preventing cell separation and water uptake in the cotyledon.

Development and characterisation of barley‐based non‐conventional pasta supplemented with chickpea flour

SummaryChickpea flour was supplemented (10%–40%) with barley flour for making pasta and evaluated for its quality attributes. Results showed that the increasing level of chickpea improved the pasting properties and showed a significant increase in WAC (155.28%–257.02%) and OAC (224.40%–263.17%). Increasing chickpea exhibits a reduced cooking time (5.56–5.09 min) with cooking loss below desired range. The increase in chickpea concentration produced pasta with increased protein (11.13%–15.77%) and fibre content (1.97%–3.19%). The overall colour attributes improved and texture was also improved in comparison to barley pasta. Total phenolics and flavonoids increased from 2.26 to 3.46 mg GAE g−1 and 1.73 to 2.48 mg QE g−1, respectively, with rising chickpea levels in pasta. The presence of characteristics peak in FTIR spectra with absorption band between 3200 and 3300 cm−1 confirms the presence of phenolics compounds. The SEM reveals that the addition of chickpea flour impacts the structural integrity of the pasta owing to the increased protein and fibre. Thus, Barley–chickpea has a great potential to be used for pasta production with enhanced nutritive and quality attributes.

Proximate composition, microstructure, and protein and starch digestibility of seven collections of Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) with different optimal cooking times

Because of its high protein content, Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) is a promising alternative protein source. However, the utilization of Jack bean is limited due to the long cooking time to achieve palatable softness. We hypothesize that the cooking time may influence protein and starch digestibility. In this study, we characterized seven Jack bean collections with different optimal cooking times in terms of their proximate composition, microstructure and protein and starch digestibility. Kidney bean was included as a reference for microstructure and protein and starch digestibility. Proximate composition showed that Jack bean collections have a protein content ranging from 28.8 to 39.3%, a starch content ranging from 31 to 41%, a fiber content from 15.4 to 24.6%, and a concanavalin A content in the range 35–51 mg/g dry cotyledon. Particle sizes ranging between 125 and 250 µm were chosen as a representative sample of the whole bean to characterize microstructure and digestibility of the seven collections. Confocal laser microscopy (CLSM) revealed that Jack bean cells have an oval shape and contain starch granules embedded in a protein matrix similar to kidney bean cells. The diameter of Jack bean cells was measured by image analysis of CLSM micrographs and ranged from 103 to 123 µm, while the diameter of starch granules was 31–38 µm, comparatively larger than that of the kidney bean starch granules. Isolated intact cells were used to determine the starch and protein digestibility in the Jack beans collections. The digestion kinetics of starch followed a logistic model, whereas the digestion kinetics of protein followed a fractional conversion model. We found no correlation between optimal cooking time and kinetic parameters of protein and starch digestibility, implying that optimal cooking time is not predictive of protein and starch digestibility. In addition, we tested the effect of reduced cooking times on protein and starch digestibility on one Jack bean collection. The result showed that reducing cooking time significantly reduces starch digestibility, but not protein digestibility. The present study contributes to our understanding of the effect of food processing on protein and starch digestibility in legumes.

“Experiment Analysis of Box Type Solar Cooker with and without Thermal Energy Storage Medium”

Abstract: Energy plays a vital role for cooking purpose. This study is focused on the performance analysis of box type solar cooker at the climate conditions of Gwalior. Thermal energy storage materials provide better temperature and reducing cooking time as compared to without TES. In this thesis, two different types of TES material are used i.e. water and sand and the performance of solar cooker with TES and without TES are compared, the maxi mum temperature is attained by the solar cooker without TES was found 90.6oC when solar radiation was 1075 w/m2 while using sand and water as TES the maximum temperature was found 81.3°C and 69.4oC respectively when solar radiation was found very low 496 w/m2 and 365 w/m2 .It seems that where radiation is low and off-sunshine, TES material is used for attaining maximum temperature. The sand gains the temperature faster than the water but it needs to be moisture free. The advantage of using water is that even though there occurs a sudden fall in solar radiation, the water temperature remains the same for a long duration, which is not possible in case of cooker without thermal energy storage.

Cooking properties and nutrient retention of biofortified common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) varieties: The case of Burundi

IntroductionCurrent research on micronutrient deficiency indicates positive outcomes associated with utilizing biofortified beans in mitigating nutrition-related iron and zinc deficiencies, primarily in Sub-Saharan Africa. The common bean is however not palatable in its raw state and requires cooking before consumption. Existing research on the cooking qualities and nutrient retention of these novel biofortified common bean varieties is nonetheless scant, notably in Burundi.Materials and methodsThis study determined water absorption capacity, cooking yield, cooking time, and iron and zinc retention of 9 biofortified common bean varieties with Kinure, a traditional non-biofortified variety, as the control. The study employed a 10 × 2 completely randomized design in a factorial arrangement. The first factor was bean varieties with ten levels, and the second was pre-treatment with two levels, soaking and not soaking. Standard methods were used to analyze cooking properties and mineral retention, and experiments replicated thrice. Data analysis was conducted at a 95% confidence level and included Analysis of Variance and t-test comparison studies. Post-hoc analysis was performed using Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference.Results and discussionCooking properties and mineral retention varied significantly between soaked and unsoaked bean varieties (P < 0.05) and in comparison, to Kinure (P < 0.05 and P < 0.001). Water absorption capacity varied from 64.51% to 116.3%. Soaked beans recorded half the total cooking time needed to cook unsoaked beans (77.62 versus 156.86 minutes), had higher cooking yields (289.77% versus 259.82%), and reduced Fe (121.58 versus 167.8%) and Zn (127.74% versus 145.15%) retention. Compared to Kinure, soaking resulted in longer cooking times, lower cooking yields in the biofortified common beans, and an insignificant effect on their zinc retention. A significant correlation between iron and zinc retention (r = 0.445), water absorption capacity and iron retention (r = −0.0425) and water absorption capacity and zinc retention (r = −0.477) were recorded. Three clusters were also observed; iron and zinc retention, cooking yields, and water absorption capacity, and cooking time. It was observed that, soaking common beans before cooking reduces cooking time and increases cooking yield in both biofortified and traditional common bean varieties. Moreover, biofortified common beans are a good source of iron and zinc and could considerably alleviate micronutrient deficiencies, particularly in developing countries.

Influence of high-pressure processing on nutritional composition and bioactive compounds of Phaseolus coccineus L.

The influence of high-pressure processing (HPP) prior to cooking on nutritional composition and bioactive compounds content of four varieties of Phaseolus coccineus L. was studied. Cooking and HPP+C increased the protein content. However, minerals, total carbohydrates, ciceritol and α-galactosides were reduced. Fat was not affected by cooking but decreased after HPP+C. For dietary fiber, the behavior observed was different depending on the sample and the treatment applied. HPP+C could be considered a good processing technology to retain the advantageous lower myo-inositol phosphates isoforms and supply prebiotic oligosaccharides. The trypsin inhibitors activity was lower in the cooked and HPP+C samples; however, there were no significant differences between both thermal treatments. Thus, HPP+C reduced cooking time and preserving or improving the nutritional composition of the beans and their bioactive compounds content.

Soaking beans for 12 h reduces split percent and cooking time regardless of type of water used for cooking

Beans are one of the most important cheap source of protein in developing countries. However, their utilisation in the diets of many people remains limited due to long cooking time, among others. Therefore, it is imperative to identify ways to enhance utilisation of beans. The aim of the current study was to assess the effects of soaking and cooking in different types of water (tap, borehole, acidulated- 1.0 percent citric acid and soda- 0.2 percent sodium bicarbonate) on cooking time (CT), split percentage (SP) and total soluble solids (TSS) in broth of different varieties of beans. Results show that soaking significantly reduced CT across eight varieties from an average CT of 109.5–84.6 min in tap water, 109.5–85.2 min in borehole water, 115.9–92.7 min in acidulated water and 82.0–51.2 min in soda water representing 22.7%, 22.1%, 20.0% and 37.6% reduction in CT, respectively. Soaking generally decreased SP and varietal differences were observed suggesting beans are less likely to break when soaking precede cooking. Although cooking in soda water significantly reduced CT, unfortunately, it increased SP. Acidulated water extended CT but reduced SP in almost all varieties. Soaking generally decreased TSS in broth from 7.0 to 6.7% in tap water, 6.1–5.8% in borehole water and 11.3–7.7% in soda water while it increased TSS in acidulated water from 18.2 to 20.6% across all the eight varieties which suggest reduction in leaching out of bean solids into cooking water which is consistent with reduced SP of soaked beans. While use of soda water reduced cooking time and therefore saved time and energy, its effect of increasing split percent may not be appealing to some consumers. This study has demonstrated that bean soaking significantly reduced cooking time and split percent and these can also be affected by type of cooking water.